tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21409567196777029642024-03-15T18:11:53.299-07:00HISTORY OF SCIENCEHistory of science is devoted to the history of science, medicine and technology from earliest times to the present day. Histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with William Whewell, as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public.Unknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger294125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-13301903323726280512024-03-11T22:15:00.000-07:002024-03-11T22:30:27.672-07:00Unraveling the Mysteries of Protons: A Journey into Atomic StructureProtons, those positively charged particles residing within the nucleus of an atom, are fundamental to understanding the nature of matter. While they may seem small, their significance in determining the characteristics of elements cannot be overstated. With a mass approximately 1,840 times that of an electron, protons play a crucial role in shaping the physical and chemical properties of atoms.<br /><br />The story of protons begins with the pioneering work of Ernest Rutherford, whose experiments paved the way for our understanding of atomic structure. Building upon J.J. Thomson's discovery of electrons in 1897, Rutherford and his contemporaries sought to unravel the complexities of the atom. They reasoned that since electrons carried a negative charge, there must exist a positively charged counterpart to maintain the atom's overall neutrality.<br /><br />In a series of groundbreaking experiments, Rutherford bombarded atoms with energetic alpha particles, which are essentially helium nuclei. By observing the trajectory of these particles after they interacted with atoms, Rutherford deduced the presence of a dense, positively charged nucleus within the atom. This nucleus, he concluded, was composed predominantly of protons.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3byZu7lo-a1Mk0Y4RB3F9S5t-qsF6iJ72ROqYSwvMGS6EfMMRDqggEc3YXaxGLEw1HZDqzszaILYAhyl3sdqtYKG3VbfDzgE5YdFoWssdIZ9l7FDAQuRCpAYiny048Jz9aRqFSuR2FdT1ssELo3NQG7Qr6yUSud2nuakHEhiqoZZCvt4sSn0Bz7-6z_g/s3227/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2073" data-original-width="3227" height="206" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3byZu7lo-a1Mk0Y4RB3F9S5t-qsF6iJ72ROqYSwvMGS6EfMMRDqggEc3YXaxGLEw1HZDqzszaILYAhyl3sdqtYKG3VbfDzgE5YdFoWssdIZ9l7FDAQuRCpAYiny048Jz9aRqFSuR2FdT1ssELo3NQG7Qr6yUSud2nuakHEhiqoZZCvt4sSn0Bz7-6z_g/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>The significance of Rutherford's discovery cannot be overstated. It provided the missing piece in the puzzle of atomic structure, confirming the existence of a positively charged particle within the nucleus. Through meticulous experimentation and analysis, Rutherford not only demonstrated the existence of protons but also laid the groundwork for future research in nuclear physics.<br /><br />Furthermore, Rutherford's work highlighted the interconnectedness of various atomic constituents. By recognizing the relationship between alpha particles and the structure of the nucleus, he uncovered the fundamental nature of protons and their role in determining an atom's identity.<br /><br />In essence, protons represent more than just positively charged particles; they embody our understanding of the building blocks of matter. Rutherford's discoveries paved the way for further exploration into the depths of atomic structure, shaping our modern understanding of chemistry and physics. As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the subatomic realm, the significance of protons remains ever-present, guiding our quest for knowledge and discovery.<br /><i>Unraveling the Mysteries of Protons: A Journey into Atomic Structure<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitMq9_Fv9H-offB6ICkybRT2UhioS9XHJsCJvqX3dV4Q9gGqsttUOcA-bhf9oeQxKB_rknf57WRxzTCIT52tUZW5-gn6J_N1zt32DfBX7hQ_77JgL5DOZGAIxwBmvcYOYn3vepG5YSyFROzmEuOp8eEvykJfCSeeda3xWV1gemgNc0QQo7ks5BwHcgNi8/s1200/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="539" data-original-width="1200" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitMq9_Fv9H-offB6ICkybRT2UhioS9XHJsCJvqX3dV4Q9gGqsttUOcA-bhf9oeQxKB_rknf57WRxzTCIT52tUZW5-gn6J_N1zt32DfBX7hQ_77JgL5DOZGAIxwBmvcYOYn3vepG5YSyFROzmEuOp8eEvykJfCSeeda3xWV1gemgNc0QQo7ks5BwHcgNi8/s320/2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-29124145296294350942024-02-28T20:18:00.000-08:002024-02-28T20:18:28.148-08:00The Evolution of Ancient Egyptian Weights and MeasuresAncient Egypt, renowned for its architectural marvels and cultural advancements, also stands out in history as the birthplace of standardized measurement systems. Dating back to approximately 3100 B.C., the Egyptians introduced the concept of scales to facilitate trade, although they relied on a barter system rather than coined currency. Instead, they assigned values to metals such as gold, silver, and copper, laying the groundwork for a structured economy.<br /><br />The earliest concrete evidence of standardized units of weight and the use of weighing scales dates to around 2600 B.C. during the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, particularly evident in artifacts excavated from the reign of Sneferu. These artifacts, including Deben balance weights, provide insight into the precision and sophistication of ancient Egyptian craftsmanship.<br /><br />Throughout the Old and Middle Kingdom periods, spanning approximately 2025 to 1700 B.C., inscribed weights corroborate the existence of units weighing around 12-14 grams and 27 grams. References to "small and large deben" in accounts from the late Middle Kingdom suggest variations in weight measurement standards. Furthermore, distinctions are made between a gold deben and a copper deben, with the former likely equivalent to 12-14 grams and the latter to 27 grams.<br /><br />However, during the New Kingdom, significant changes occurred in the measurement system. The deben, which previously equated to approximately 12-14 grams, was now standardized to 91 grams. This adjustment reflects the evolving needs of the society and its economy over time.<br /><br />For finer measurements, the qedet, equivalent to 1/10 of a deben, and the shematy, equal to 1/12 of a deben, were utilized. These subdivisions allowed for greater precision in commercial transactions and further underscored the meticulous attention to detail evident in ancient Egyptian trade practices.<br /><br />In conclusion, the ancient Egyptians' development of standardized weights and measures represents a pivotal advancement in human civilization. From the introduction of scales for trade to the refinement of measurement units over successive dynasties, their contributions laid the foundation for modern systems of commerce and quantification.<br /><i>The Evolution of Ancient Egyptian Weights and Measures</i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-83642956193068534832024-02-21T23:44:00.000-08:002024-02-21T23:44:53.325-08:00Photon Discovery TimelineThe photon, often referred to as the quantum of electromagnetic radiation, holds a pivotal position in the realm of physics due to its unique characteristics and fundamental role in understanding the nature of light.<br /><br />In physics, a photon is defined as the smallest discrete quantity of electromagnetic radiation, possessing both wave-like and particle-like properties. Its significance lies in its role as the carrier of electromagnetic force and its involvement in various phenomena, from the photoelectric effect to the transmission of light.<br /><br />Albert Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect marked a significant milestone in the study of photons. The photoelectric effect, observed when light strikes a material surface, involves the ejection of electrons. Einstein proposed that light consists of discrete packets of energy, later termed photons, which interact with matter as individual particles. This concept challenged the prevailing notion of light as a continuous wave and laid the groundwork for quantum mechanics.<br /><br />Einstein further elaborated on the concept of energy quantization in electromagnetic radiation, contrasting it with Maxwell's theory of classical electromagnetism. While Maxwell's theory described light as a continuous wave, Einstein suggested that light energy could be localized into distinct, quantized units—photons. This localization of energy into point-like quanta provided a novel perspective on the behavior of light and its interactions with matter.<br /><br />Building upon Einstein's initial insights, further developments in photon theory emerged. Einstein's work demonstrated the relationship between photons and Planck's law of black-body radiation, revealing the quantized nature of energy emission and absorption. Additionally, Einstein proposed that photons possess momentum, contributing to their characterization as full-fledged particles with both energy and momentum.<br /><br />Experimental validation of photon properties played a crucial role in solidifying the concept of photons. Robert Millikan's studies of the photoelectric effect from 1914 to 1916 provided empirical evidence supporting Einstein's theories, confirming the discrete nature of light energy. Arthur Holly Compton's experiments in 1923 demonstrated the phenomenon of photon scattering, providing direct proof of photon momentum and further bolstering the particle-like behavior of photons.<br /><br />The recognition of Einstein's contributions to physics culminated in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. While Einstein was most renowned for his theory of relativity, his discovery of photons was specifically acknowledged by the Swedish Academy, highlighting the significance of this breakthrough in the scientific community. Similarly, Arthur Holly Compton's Nobel Prize in 1927 underscored the experimental validation of photon momentum, affirming the importance of his work in advancing our understanding of light.<br /><br />In conclusion, the discovery of photons revolutionized our understanding of light and its interactions with matter. From Einstein's theoretical insights to experimental confirmation by scientists like Compton, the study of photons has played a pivotal role in shaping modern physics. The recognition of these contributions underscores the enduring impact of photon theory on scientific progress and innovation.<br /><i>Photon Discovery Timeline<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-an3Bo5hx1LvpnFv8ViNhp987ojjeGFCFYYO32U3xZOR7Y45XxgL9qLit7lvDCrAdT3iwOxKICYmL5GBrWLulyjOlMtwoQBCnLO4Se9iIo7PNNHw_6oxLfB_Pr9diWwNJ1-CuEoJfGb9mD3TIcGpmRjhisfuyEc2UjX0jAqToQ1TLtkKJZMY9_q0xQhk/s537/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="469" data-original-width="537" height="279" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-an3Bo5hx1LvpnFv8ViNhp987ojjeGFCFYYO32U3xZOR7Y45XxgL9qLit7lvDCrAdT3iwOxKICYmL5GBrWLulyjOlMtwoQBCnLO4Se9iIo7PNNHw_6oxLfB_Pr9diWwNJ1-CuEoJfGb9mD3TIcGpmRjhisfuyEc2UjX0jAqToQ1TLtkKJZMY9_q0xQhk/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-77196497224072901992024-02-03T04:09:00.000-08:002024-02-03T04:09:40.182-08:00Faraday's Ion TheoryMichael Faraday's Ion Theory, conceived in the early to mid-19th century, was a revolutionary idea that reshaped the understanding of electricity and chemical reactions, particularly in solutions. Faraday's contributions laid the groundwork for the modern comprehension of ions, charged particles that play a crucial role in diverse chemical processes.<br /><br />The history of ion theory is intricately connected with the pioneering endeavors of Michael Faraday, a distinguished 19th-century scientist whose work on electricity and electrolysis set the foundation for contemporary electrochemistry.<br /><br />Faraday's scientific journey commenced in modest circumstances, yet his unwavering curiosity and determination propelled him to become one of the most influential scientists of his time.<br /><br />Through extensive experiments on electrolysis, a process involving the passage of electric current through a conducting solution, Faraday observed the breakdown of compounds into their basic elements.<br /><br />Faraday's groundbreaking electrolysis experiments in the early 19th century marked a pivotal moment in the exploration of electricity. His systematic approach and meticulous observations paved the way for the discovery of fundamental concepts that transformed our comprehension of chemical reactions.<br /><br />In the course of his investigations, Faraday witnessed the disintegration of compounds into their constituent elements and introduced the concept of ions – charged particles formed during electrolysis. This revelation opened new avenues for exploring the behavior of substances in solution and significantly contributed to the evolution of ion theory.<br /><br />Faraday's experiments not only supplied empirical evidence for the existence of ions but also provided crucial insights into their nature and behavior. His work established the foundation for subsequent scientists to delve deeper into the molecular and atomic realms.<br /><br />Building on his experimental findings, Faraday developed theoretical insights that influenced the emerging ion theory. He proposed that ions were charged particles responsible for conducting electric current through solutions, revolutionizing the understanding of chemical reactions in solution.<br /><br />Faraday's ion theory left a profound impact on the field of chemistry, providing a unifying framework for comprehending the behavior of substances in solution. It fueled advancements in analytical chemistry and contributed to the formulation of the periodic table.<br /><br />Faraday's work laid the groundwork for subsequent progress in electrochemistry, leading to the development of batteries, electroplating techniques, and various technological applications.<br /><br />Michael Faraday's exploration of electricity and electrolysis, culminating in the formulation and development of ion theory, remains a pivotal aspect of scientific progress. His legacy not only enriched our understanding of chemical processes but also paved the way for innovations that continue to shape the world of science and technology.<br /><i>Faraday's Ion Theory<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEij4Ak_rOZfRTn8lWqoE4xtlLZrSwReU7Z8ekLkC_0nTLta69ctOjcBx6-We0fJA_yI2BPFU_L34MLQDbQy14OcjtBSr_DqZ4g3cyHt4dXtzdg7FIaPl8N1FMmVt7KL91ZQlObpg-AZ31cTLmeBHIcP7VtcXxPeEzF2MaLpCXriYuUIB6ul8MecGaBP90M/s330/Screenshot%202024-02-03%20200900.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="248" data-original-width="330" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEij4Ak_rOZfRTn8lWqoE4xtlLZrSwReU7Z8ekLkC_0nTLta69ctOjcBx6-We0fJA_yI2BPFU_L34MLQDbQy14OcjtBSr_DqZ4g3cyHt4dXtzdg7FIaPl8N1FMmVt7KL91ZQlObpg-AZ31cTLmeBHIcP7VtcXxPeEzF2MaLpCXriYuUIB6ul8MecGaBP90M/s320/Screenshot%202024-02-03%20200900.png" width="320" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-27243961286106610072024-01-24T22:14:00.000-08:002024-01-24T22:14:24.627-08:00Ancient Cubit's Historical SignificanceApproximately in 2650 BC, the most ancient surviving documentation of a unit for measuring length, the cubit-rod ruler, has its roots in Nippur. The English term "cubit" is thought to trace back to the Latin word "cubitum," meaning elbow, and in Greek, it was denoted as "πήχυς." This measurement technique is grounded in a human attribute—the length of the forearm from the tip of the middle finger to the end of the elbow.<br /><br />The cubit, an ancient measure of length, is believed to have originated in Egypt around 3000 BC and later became widely used in the ancient world, particularly among the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Israelites. Unlike contemporary units such as centimeters and meters, the ancient Egyptians employed cubits, spans, and fingers for their measurements.<br /><br />The ancient Egyptian royal cubit holds significance as the earliest confirmed standard measure, and cubit rods played a pivotal role in length measurement. Over time, a number of these rods have endured, with two being identified in the tomb of Maya, the treasurer of the 18th dynasty pharaoh Tutankhamun, in Saqqara, and another discovered in the tomb of Kha in Thebes.<br /><br />Egyptian cubits were not standardized universally, leading to regional variations. The royal cubit, however, gained prominence as a standardized unit, measuring approximately 52.3 centimeters (20.6 inches). This consistency facilitated construction projects like the pyramids, where precise measurements were crucial for architectural integrity.<br /><br />As the cubit spread across ancient civilizations, it adapted to local needs. The Sumerians, for example, had their own version known as the Sumerian cubit, while the Hebrews used a cubit known as the "long cubit." This diversity showcases the flexibility and adaptability of the cubit as a measuring unit.<br /><br />Beyond its practical applications, the cubit held cultural and religious significance. In ancient Egypt, it was often linked to the divine, with the pharaohs believed to embody divine proportions in their measurements. The cubit also played a role in religious rituals, symbolizing order and balance.<br /><br />In conclusion, the cubit's historical journey from its roots in Nippur to its widespread use in ancient civilizations highlights not only its practical importance but also its cultural and symbolic significance. The surviving cubit rods serve as tangible links to our distant past, offering insights into the precision and ingenuity of ancient measurement systems.<br /><i>Ancient Cubit's Historical Significance<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibkGi_sgxiTLCs3LU6Jde6h2Zc9aROe-gisQJlVvBGBLPathQVM7Qz5yVOFTLizaHXm8QN9lklZuDzxqUJmjyB2r4n9M6xPrqytB-w4-ecyeTRwtHo-ix-j-RITfTMNPuI2w0y51zdmoMKt22ZjvbLtfDfB5bBOu8DeiVThWIWFdaC-I3rnoS3aiauhxE/s1592/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="638" data-original-width="1592" height="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibkGi_sgxiTLCs3LU6Jde6h2Zc9aROe-gisQJlVvBGBLPathQVM7Qz5yVOFTLizaHXm8QN9lklZuDzxqUJmjyB2r4n9M6xPrqytB-w4-ecyeTRwtHo-ix-j-RITfTMNPuI2w0y51zdmoMKt22ZjvbLtfDfB5bBOu8DeiVThWIWFdaC-I3rnoS3aiauhxE/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-38886787536893210202024-01-01T17:21:00.000-08:002024-01-01T17:21:18.509-08:00Potassium Discovery by Sir Humphry Davy The term "potassium" has its roots in the English term for potash. The symbol for potassium, K, is a derivation from the Latin word "kalium" and the Arabic word "qali," both associated with alkali.<br /><br />In 1807, Sir Humphry Davy identified the element potassium. The process of isolating metallic potassium involved the electrolysis of molten caustic potash (KOH). Davy performed the electrolysis by slightly moistening dried potassium hydroxide (potash), which was exposed to the moist air in his laboratory. The electrolysis was powered by three large batteries constructed by Davy. After discovering potassium, Davy applied the same method a few months later to isolate sodium.<br /><br />Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829), a distinguished chemist in the early 19th century, established a widely appreciated lecture tradition for the public at the Royal Institution in London, a tradition that persists today. He is also held in high regard in his hometown of Penzance, Cornwall, for inventing the miner’s safety lamp. However, his most significant accomplishment remains the discovery of active metals in their metallic form.<br /><br />Caustic potash, a crucial source of potassium, is primarily extracted in Germany, New Mexico, California, and Utah. Pure potassium displays a soft, waxy texture and can be easily sliced with a knife.<br /><i>Potassium Discovery by Sir Humphry Davy<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIZpd5JLjrRMhX_Odd9g0nqRsC7eyLoC9NQM4TRnfYrQn8BKTffu5R7RFYU70bG5ygvrxP_TwnHk8m3nUPAJ76BcBkplZ-oKzImwKXw_q2vnAzVyWBVLRMXI7I7aMn44-lenRGS0R6UQTW8EWSsyxPc04ncGj6LvlozuOMnaOmzU0zJRMBp3R-5DhAzz8/s683/Screenshot%202024-01-02%20091704.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="683" data-original-width="492" height="409" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIZpd5JLjrRMhX_Odd9g0nqRsC7eyLoC9NQM4TRnfYrQn8BKTffu5R7RFYU70bG5ygvrxP_TwnHk8m3nUPAJ76BcBkplZ-oKzImwKXw_q2vnAzVyWBVLRMXI7I7aMn44-lenRGS0R6UQTW8EWSsyxPc04ncGj6LvlozuOMnaOmzU0zJRMBp3R-5DhAzz8/w295-h409/Screenshot%202024-01-02%20091704.png" width="295" /></a></div> </i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-62320340810233276322023-12-20T20:44:00.000-08:002023-12-20T20:44:49.242-08:00Ancient Egyptian Math SkillsAround 6000 BC, the ancient Egyptians settled in the fertile Nile valley, where they began observing lunar phases and seasonal patterns for agricultural and religious reasons.<br /><br />Within their society, mathematics played a pivotal role, being applied to tasks such as measuring time, establishing straight lines, evaluating Nile flood levels, computing taxes, surveying land areas, managing financial transactions, and even in culinary endeavors.<br /><br />The numerical system employed by ancient Egyptians endured from about 3000 BC until the early first millennium AD. This system relied on multiples of ten, often rounded to higher powers, and was expressed through hieroglyphs. Distinct symbols represented one unit, ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand, hundred thousand, and one million.<br /><br />In contrast to the positional notation of the decimal system, the ancient Egyptians did not embrace such a concept. Instead, their proficiency lay in working with unit fractions, where the numerator was consistently one. These fractions were skillfully applied to express volumes of irregularly shaped objects and to address problems related to areas and volumes.<br /><i>Ancient Egyptian Math Skills</i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-13091469918342134522023-12-06T23:33:00.000-08:002023-12-06T23:38:35.922-08:00Gas Laws: Gay-Lussac's DiscoveryAs the temperature of a gas sample in a rigid container increases, the gas pressure follows suit. The surge in kinetic energy encourages gas molecules to collide more forcefully with the container walls, leading to an increase in pressure.<br /><br />Gay-Lussac’s principle, a gas law, states that the pressure exerted by a gas (with a constant mass and volume) undergoes direct changes in response to the absolute temperature of the gas. To put it simply, gas pressure is proportional to its temperature when the mass remains constant, and the volume remains unchanged.<br /><br />The term "Gay-Lussac’s principle" typically refers to Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac's law concerning the combination of gas volumes, discovered in 1808 and recorded in 1809.<br /><br />Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, a distinguished French chemist and physicist, gained recognition as one of the foremost European scientists of his time. His distinguished reputation is derived from numerous breakthroughs in both chemistry and physics. He spearheaded groundbreaking investigations into gas behavior, introduced innovative analytical techniques, and accomplished significant milestones in applied chemistry.<br /><i>Gas Laws: Gay-Lussac's Discovery<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRrgnNBFbisxyd-hnIe3EmFTNFi3f8TUzEG6i-rIWGcGTgAPd2pJ5jJ6QP5qq1YBMq2InNh1EZd5Jp9kp7ou-hxGiddt-NAOvSckgimFHavehRUwcZlI4dxAbjaSW46FVt4VE6C-V8VnT1qkDAb8T-LxpldBy0HPMkDBWDuOKO3RQ-Xi-lcilXkdsH-1o/s640/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="579" height="391" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRrgnNBFbisxyd-hnIe3EmFTNFi3f8TUzEG6i-rIWGcGTgAPd2pJ5jJ6QP5qq1YBMq2InNh1EZd5Jp9kp7ou-hxGiddt-NAOvSckgimFHavehRUwcZlI4dxAbjaSW46FVt4VE6C-V8VnT1qkDAb8T-LxpldBy0HPMkDBWDuOKO3RQ-Xi-lcilXkdsH-1o/w354-h391/1.jpg" width="354" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-2005044098433981952023-08-10T07:26:00.005-07:002023-08-10T07:29:52.155-07:00Evolution of Gunpowder: A Historical OverviewIn their pursuit of an elixir for extending life during the 9th century AD, Chinese monks fortuitously stumbled upon the technology behind crafting gunpowder. Saltpeter, a crucial ingredient, had been utilized by the same culture since ancient times for medicinal purposes. During the Tang Dynasty, an alchemist combined 75 parts of saltpeter with 14 parts of charcoal and 11 parts of sulfur, yielding an explosive reaction upon exposure to an open flame.<br /><br />Initially conceived for use in fireworks, gunpowder swiftly found military applications as early as 904 AD, marking the commencement of a prolonged and lethal history linked with it. Among the earliest innovations were the development of the "flying fire" – an arrow affixed with a tube filled with gunpowder – alongside rudimentary hand grenades and toxic gas shells.<br /><br />The <i>Wujing zongyao</i> ("Compilation of the Most Important Military Techniques"), a military manual dating back to 1044 AD, records the initial authentic formula for gunpowder and provides instructions for its large-scale production. This initial military use of gunpowder centered on its role as an incendiary compound.<br /><br />Progressing into the 11th century, the Chinese began loading bombs with gunpowder and launching them from catapults. These fire cannons necessitated a two-person team for transportation and were fired from mobile platforms strategically positioned alongside the fortifications of enemy cities.<br /><br />The refinement of the formula stands out as the foremost milestone in technological advancement. The dissemination of gunpowder knowledge spread rapidly across Asia and Europe, possibly accelerated by the Mongol conquests during the 13th century. Written formulations emerged in the Middle East between 1240 and 1280 in a treatise by Hasan al-Rammah and in Europe by 1267 in Roger Bacon's Opus Majus.<br /><br />Sir Roger Bacon conducted experiments involving varied compositions, including a mixture comprising 29.5% sulfur, 29.5% charcoal, and 41% saltpeter. Ultimately, the optimal ratio of 10:15:75 (the contemporary formula) was ascertained.<br /><br />A significant advancement surfaced in the 14th century when European innovators began incorporating liquid into the mixture, resulting in a paste that could be dried and molded into spheres. This innovation, termed "corned powder," substantially augmented the practicality of early bombs and firearms due to its enhanced durability, reliability, and safety.<br /><i>Evolution of Gunpowder: A Historical Overview<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVzeBOYNTwmAg_V5MfHeopH4yZ3vsZtCu_cH7No0yIfN90EEWzfA30GfcP9jnU7LXVsoBgZHHRV4W_LvJ1wJWhUG1hbZzoX3AFMfJaUfo-n9fi5sNq-sQi8tFifOKk5O5l1vSXg0oS7wy2CWSHtfUFTKnsCmZr-glXniBPkrASO6pzNkM0OALt605shnA/s640/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="430" data-original-width="640" height="293" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVzeBOYNTwmAg_V5MfHeopH4yZ3vsZtCu_cH7No0yIfN90EEWzfA30GfcP9jnU7LXVsoBgZHHRV4W_LvJ1wJWhUG1hbZzoX3AFMfJaUfo-n9fi5sNq-sQi8tFifOKk5O5l1vSXg0oS7wy2CWSHtfUFTKnsCmZr-glXniBPkrASO6pzNkM0OALt605shnA/w436-h293/1.jpg" width="436" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-49218916358327200252023-07-18T00:41:00.003-07:002023-07-18T00:41:33.414-07:00Oort Cloud DiscoveryThe Oort cloud, also referred to as the Öpik-Oort cloud, constitutes a spherical layer composed of icy objects encircling the Sun, our star. Positioned at a distance ranging from approximately 2,000 to 100,000 astronomical units (AU) away from the Sun, it extends well beyond the Kuiper Belt and even the Sun's magnetic field, existing within what is technically considered interstellar space.<br /><br />In 1932, Estonian astronomer Ernest J. Öpik put forth the notion of a remote reservoir of comets, arguing that the relatively rapid burning out of comets passing through the inner solar system necessitated a constant source of "fresh" comets to replenish the comet supply.<br /><br />The discovery of the Oort cloud took place in 1950, when Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort identified it not through direct telescopic observations but rather via a theoretical analysis of long-period comets—those with orbital periods surpassing 200 years. These long-period comets can follow various orbits, including eccentric ellipses, parabolas, and even modest hyperbolas.<br /><br />Professor Oort, widely recognized as one of the most eminent astronomers of the 20th century, excelled both as an observer and a theorist. He proposed the existence of a vast cloud comprising possibly 100 million comets surrounding our Solar System. Through his study of long-period comet orbits, Oort observed that many of them seemed to originate from a region much farther out than the orbit of Pluto.<br /><br />Recently, astronomers Pedro Bernardinelli and Gary Bernstein made a captivating discovery of a celestial object named 2014 UN271. This object orbits the Sun and extends into the Oort cloud. Their finding emerged from a study of archival images collected during the Dark Energy Survey conducted between 2014 and 2018.<br /><i>Oort Cloud Discovery<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8dHT6x9Sqd7yXrY5bKomyVRWgY27pa967Zorw37r_gn4LnKJGO9S8ZbzTuQ2LmpTqHSM-jFXt3htTXL-hlCrDG4llnUaS7ie6hn--9On-yHudWwqapoXkJWPI_8bBmMjO2LpssgNI5AkhNZosEll0xb-sdJAgZK-PeIz9V5Izvum4Am6AInnWMmL9NcM/s800/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="446" data-original-width="800" height="228" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8dHT6x9Sqd7yXrY5bKomyVRWgY27pa967Zorw37r_gn4LnKJGO9S8ZbzTuQ2LmpTqHSM-jFXt3htTXL-hlCrDG4llnUaS7ie6hn--9On-yHudWwqapoXkJWPI_8bBmMjO2LpssgNI5AkhNZosEll0xb-sdJAgZK-PeIz9V5Izvum4Am6AInnWMmL9NcM/w410-h228/1.jpg" width="410" /></a></div></i>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-44964766319064514122023-06-23T23:29:00.004-07:002023-06-23T23:29:20.965-07:00Geometry in ancient historyGeometry, one of the most important branches of mathematics, has its roots in countries such as Egypt, Babylon, China, Greece, and Vedic India. Around 2100 BC, the concept of area is first recognized in Babylonian clay tablets, and 3-dimensional volume is discussed in an Egyptian papyrus. This begins the study of geometry. <br /><br />In Egypt, ancient Egyptians developed geometry from the ‘Age of Pyramids’. The evidence of usage of geometry is seen on the walls of temples and written on papyrus. The Moscow Mathematical Papyrus is a well-known mathematical papyrus containing various problems in arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. <br /><br />The Babylonians of 2,000 to 1,600 BC knew much about navigation and astronomy, which required knowledge of geometry. Ancient Babylonians used studies of triangles techniques 1500 years before Greeks. The ancient Babylonians were using geometrical calculations to track the biggest objects in space. <br /><br />The Babylonians were also responsible for dividing the circumference of a circle into 360 equal parts. They also used the Pythagorean Theorem (long before Pythagoras), performed calculations involving ratio and proportion, and studied the relationships between the elements of various triangles. <br /><br />Beginning about the 6th century BC, the Greeks gathered and extended this practical knowledge and from it generalized the abstract subject now known as geometry, which is derived from Ancient Greek words – ‘Geo’ means ‘Earth’ and ‘metron’ means ‘measurement’. <br /><br />Herodotus in 5th BC credits the Egyptians with inventing surveying in order to reestablish property values after the annual flood of the Nile. Similarly, eagerness to know the volumes of solid figures derived from the need to evaluate tribute, store oil and grain, and build dams and pyramids. <br /><br />Alexandria became one of the important centers of Greek learning and this is where Euclid who is often referred to as the “Father of Geometry”, wrote perhaps the most important and successful mathematical textbook of all time, the “Stoicheion” or “Elements”.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Geometry in ancient history<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHyjp90hp-joFree2mGWux3gSjdduyVgu77Aw_37O4bzf_M6ky2X65M95J8INzH-08Iap77S6zC7liExiQjUkO_yJOwWT7SKsQE6OCBN4wiazaiyjl870XnQYiSxU6sUb4LLHy0JIXebR32u8y8bbqGQE5Xqc-_6zIG2TshDEf8L7qHAasoWrHcUfkcLQ/s1432/Screenshot%202023-06-24%20142655.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="824" data-original-width="1432" height="275" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHyjp90hp-joFree2mGWux3gSjdduyVgu77Aw_37O4bzf_M6ky2X65M95J8INzH-08Iap77S6zC7liExiQjUkO_yJOwWT7SKsQE6OCBN4wiazaiyjl870XnQYiSxU6sUb4LLHy0JIXebR32u8y8bbqGQE5Xqc-_6zIG2TshDEf8L7qHAasoWrHcUfkcLQ/w478-h275/Screenshot%202023-06-24%20142655.png" width="478" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-43601943614184189022023-05-25T07:57:00.004-07:002023-05-25T07:57:42.712-07:00History of RNARibonucleic acid, or RNA, plays a key role in turning the instructions held in the DNA of human genome into functional proteins in the body cells. The discovery of RNA began with the discovery of nucleic acids by Friedrich Miescher in 1868 who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the nucleus. <br /><br />In 1933, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, Jean Brachet suggested that DNA is found in cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. His work with Torbjörn Caspersson showed that RNA plays an active role in protein synthesis. Brachet also carried out pioneering work in the field of cell differentiation. <br /><br />In 1959 Severo Ochoa won the Nobel Prize in Medicine (shared with Arthur Kornberg) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory. <br /><br />At the Institut Pasteur, a team including Jacques Monod, François Jacob and François Gros was looking into the mechanisms involved in reading genetic information. <br /><br />Their research led them to the conclusion that the expression of the genes encoding these proteins was controlled by regulatory proteins whose activity was dependent on the presence of the sugar. According to their theories, this transmission had to be performed by a type of RNA, which they termed "messenger RNA," a copy of the DNA sequence. <br /><br />On May 13, 1961, two articles appeared in Nature, authored by a total of nine people, including Sydney Brenner, François Jacob and Jim Watson, announcing the isolation of messenger RNA (mRNA). In the same month, François Jacob and Jacques Monod published a review in Journal of Molecular Biology in which they put mRNA into a theoretical context, arguing for its role in gene regulation. <br /><br />The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of yeast tRNA was found by Robert W. Holley in 1965. Holley won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine for his research. <br /><br />In 1967 Carl Woese found the catalytic properties of RNA and speculated that the earliest forms of life relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">History of RNA<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4f7CFX-hQhvgQ6ruiWkpzbllp7XadNNE8wEk3eiz5HeF0Kgj8kglwGAVV_kczS_bnxKuCCs_h53apVhSt4Uz-7_Vu_4OiRC0Ef2CVyxGOtWym4BRGC2BNqI6ACnr-09h5J3_W-mghRtrHc1CEuZafkgWPKUGOCjkFZpuzK5NRMZ0Mjmn0toz6uRTs/s717/1-LAPTOP-O844GS9F.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="717" data-original-width="519" height="442" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4f7CFX-hQhvgQ6ruiWkpzbllp7XadNNE8wEk3eiz5HeF0Kgj8kglwGAVV_kczS_bnxKuCCs_h53apVhSt4Uz-7_Vu_4OiRC0Ef2CVyxGOtWym4BRGC2BNqI6ACnr-09h5J3_W-mghRtrHc1CEuZafkgWPKUGOCjkFZpuzK5NRMZ0Mjmn0toz6uRTs/w320-h442/1-LAPTOP-O844GS9F.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-5291520372266737892023-04-28T07:25:00.001-07:002023-04-28T07:25:03.595-07:00Development of wormhole theory Wormhole is hypothetical object such as a short-cut tunnel connecting two points in space-time. <br /><br />Shortly after the advent of general relativity by Einstein, theories of black holes and white holes were proposed. The first appearance of a “tunnel structure” was in 1916 by the Austrian physicist Ludwig Flamm just after the discovery of Schwarzschild’s black-hole solution. <br /><br />Almost immediately after the introduction of quantum entanglement in 1935, Einstein and Rosen attempted to explain quantum entanglement using special relativity and the speed of light. Einstein and Rosen proposed a “bridge structure” between black-holes in order to obtain a regular solution without a singularity. <br /><br />Einstein and Rosen found that, theoretically, every black hole is paired with a white hole. Because the two holes would exist in separate places in space, a tunnel — a wormhole — would bridge the two ends. <br /><br />A white hole, unlike a black hole, repels any matter that goes to it. Some physicists think that matter swallowed by a black hole is thrown out on the other side and into a white hole. <br /><br />The name “wormhole” was coined by John A. Wheeler in 1957, and its fantastic applications are popularized after the influential study of traversable wormholes by Morris and Thorne.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Development of wormhole theory<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjo8PDI64UWWl6eTUIFRtnHyIylJ7Cb3zZM1otzntmdD3RvsW7XPE0M_6KBwPE_cc60mcgXhE1mvwfCf0PHSfiR7RRBF95qLvuPMKz096QdQP3cJhAedgzvvVXiL1f47HVWyXd_Uui2rsX5l8c7XZ4EVmrkHAbipnT7PKaVPqQhfQTZwqAfqNE6Z-J5/s1200/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="800" height="476" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjo8PDI64UWWl6eTUIFRtnHyIylJ7Cb3zZM1otzntmdD3RvsW7XPE0M_6KBwPE_cc60mcgXhE1mvwfCf0PHSfiR7RRBF95qLvuPMKz096QdQP3cJhAedgzvvVXiL1f47HVWyXd_Uui2rsX5l8c7XZ4EVmrkHAbipnT7PKaVPqQhfQTZwqAfqNE6Z-J5/w317-h476/1.jpg" width="317" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-41253380059382294772023-03-20T19:11:00.001-07:002023-03-20T19:11:25.880-07:00Radon transform by Johann RadonThe Radon transform is named after the Austrian mathematician Johann Karl August Radon (December16, 1887 – May 25, 1956). The Radon transform is an integral transform whose inverse is used to reconstruct images from medical CT scans. <br /><br />Radon transform is able to transform two dimensional images with lines into a domain of possible line parameters, where each line in the image will give a peak positioned at the corresponding line parameters. This have led to many line detection applications within image processing, computer vision, and seismic. <br /><br />A technique for using Radon transforms to reconstruct a map of a planet's polar regions using a spacecraft in a polar orbit has also been devised. The Radon Transformation is also used in various applications such as radar imaging, geophysical imaging, nondestructive testing and medical imaging. <br /><br />Johann Radon had a remarkable career in mathematics: he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Vienna in Philosophy (for a thesis in the field of calculus of variations) in 1910. <br /><br />After professorships in Hamburg, Greifswald, Erlangen, Breslau, and Innsbruck, he returned to the University of Vienna, where he became dean and later president of the University of Vienna. <br /><br />In 1917, Johann Radon published his fundamental work, where he introduced what is now called the Radon transform. He presented a solution to the reconstruction problem with the Radon transform and its inversion formula. He developed this solution after building on the work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. <br /><br />His work went largely unnoticed until 1972 when Allan McLeod Cormack and Arkady Vainshtein declared its importance to the field. Johann Radon is well-known for his ground-breaking achievements in mathematics, such as the Radon-transformation, the Radon-numbers, the theorem of Radon, the theorem of Radon–Nikodym and the Radon–Riesz theorem.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Radon transform by Johann Radon<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7USZGKqO9w3l5GmP7AcTUWRjR-aTUPxF_buBn-5o86Enu0eSjNKlUIZyH0dk_15Vc0z2ZfyES2CCh21GDQfLPEdBD8-k9Sx1g7or0GIZ_KWuueKQgw6bPWDnrbAbesnefj14KCvkoLe7BF5PLEFPQZsySHPjMJZcmguSVlyfSw9q_mPTCllKUCmKi/s505/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="379" data-original-width="505" height="355" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7USZGKqO9w3l5GmP7AcTUWRjR-aTUPxF_buBn-5o86Enu0eSjNKlUIZyH0dk_15Vc0z2ZfyES2CCh21GDQfLPEdBD8-k9Sx1g7or0GIZ_KWuueKQgw6bPWDnrbAbesnefj14KCvkoLe7BF5PLEFPQZsySHPjMJZcmguSVlyfSw9q_mPTCllKUCmKi/w474-h355/1.jpg" width="474" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-32546967542710375322023-02-10T20:40:00.005-08:002023-02-10T20:40:32.693-08:00History of β-caroteneβ-carotene is a vitamin A precursor (retinol) and the most important of the provitamins A. It is cleaved to form two molecules of retinal, one of which is further metabolized to form retinol and retinoic acid. β-carotene was discovered by the scientist Heinrich Wilhelm Ferdinand Wackenroder, who crystallized it from carrots in 1831. <br /><br />In June, 1826 Wackenroder published his doctoral dissertation, “On Anthelminthics in the Vegetable Kingdom,” as presented to Göttingen University. The thesis earned him very high praise, as well as the Royal Prize. <br /><br />A few years later he published the results of his examination of carrots, one of the purposes of that research being the search for the presence in the juice of that vegetable of an effective anthelminthic. He obtained it in small ruby-red flakes soluble in ether, which when dissolved in fats gave 'a beautiful yellow color'. <br /><br />William Christopher Zeise, Danish organic chemist. recognized its hydrocarbon nature in 1847, but his analyses gave him a composition of C5H8. <br /><br />It was Léon-Albert Arnaud in 1886 who confirmed its hydrocarbon nature and gave the formula C26H38, which is close to the theoretical composition of C40H56. In 1887 the French Academy of Sciences awarded Arnaud one-half of the Jecker Prize on the basis of his determination of the correct formula of carotene and the fact that it accompanied chlorophyll in the leaves of all plants <br /><br />Not until 1907 was the empirical formula of β-carotene, C40H56, established by Willstatter and Mieg. The structure was elucidated by Paul Karrer in 1930-31. Paul Karrer succeeded in extracting vitamin A from cod-liver oil and in determining its composition. This was the first time that the structure of any vitamin or provitamin had been established, and he received a Nobel prize for his work. <br /><br />Steenbock suggested in 1919 that there could be a relationship between beta-carotene and vitamin A. It was not until Jim Olson and DeWitt Goodman independently showed in 1965 the formation of retinal, the aldehyde form of vitamin A from beta-carotene in cell-free extracts of liver and intestine, that this vital pathway of beta-carotene was recognized.<br /><b><span style="color: #ffa400;">History of β-carotene<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhA41P5MZTZgCahlVB-MqR9SGZW981SfJsBILgwF5BDOHg-duyOJq4mQODAI-k_Y19eCNC2wHYm5uQqznT_6jJX1e6ntrmhPaib7nIivPjLSh5VBP4HL7XuRRysc8j1cStPXIAIK9Kjv2fIbqvFEmntXLpKGL-IQRQdLepOOzZSdMhxUNwzb3os2Pyv/s673/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="192" data-original-width="673" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhA41P5MZTZgCahlVB-MqR9SGZW981SfJsBILgwF5BDOHg-duyOJq4mQODAI-k_Y19eCNC2wHYm5uQqznT_6jJX1e6ntrmhPaib7nIivPjLSh5VBP4HL7XuRRysc8j1cStPXIAIK9Kjv2fIbqvFEmntXLpKGL-IQRQdLepOOzZSdMhxUNwzb3os2Pyv/w594-h169/1.jpg" width="594" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-44186851214838026502023-01-07T08:40:00.001-08:002023-01-07T08:40:01.829-08:00History of modified atmosphere packagingModified Atmosphere Packaging - MAP - is a packaging system that involves changing the gaseous atmosphere surrounding a food product inside a pack, and employing packaging materials and formats with an appropriate level of gas barrier which slows down the degradative processes such as the growth of microbial organisms, whilst enhancing some beneficial actions such as retaining the desirable red colour of meat. MAP can significantly extend the shelf life of food products, thus prolonging the distribution chain and diminishing the need for centralized production. <br /><br />It was a French naturalist, chemist and physicist, Jacques Étienne Bérard who first understood in 1821 that fruits ripening can be delayed reducing the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. The results of the experiments won him the Grand Prix de Physique from the French academy of Sciences, but it failed to inspire any commercial application. <br /><br />MAP was first recorded in 1927 as a means of extending the shelf-life of apples by storing them in atmospheres with reduced O2 and increased CO2 concentrations. <br /><br />In the 1930s it was used as modified atmosphere storage to transport fruit and beef carcasses in the holds of ships by increasing the CO2 concentrations for long-distance transport, and it was observed to increase the shelf-life by up to 100%. <br /><br />The first significant packaging trials, with individual portion packs rather than bulk supplies, were made in the late 1950s when vacuum packaging for meat, fish and coffee were first introduced. Experimentation then extended to gas flushing with nitrogen in the early 1960s. <br /><br />Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, some unspectacular progress was made in Europe, the greatest applications being the vacuum packaging of meats and cheese and the gas flushing of ground coffee. Commercial retailing of fresh meat in MAP tray systems was introduced in the early 1970s. <br /><br />European meat processing and packaging developed during the 1980s with centralized production of MAP meat in consumer packs for distribution to retail outlets. <br /><br />In 1981 a breakthrough occurred. One of the most prestigious of retailers, Marks & Spencer, introduced MAP for its complete range of fresh meats. The success of this product led years later to the introduction of MAP for bacon, fish, sliced cooked meats and cooked shellfish. Other food manufacturers and supermarket chains followed, resulting in a sharply increased availability of MAP food products reflecting the increase in consumer demand for food.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">History of modified atmosphere packaging<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiM59yGJt7EaXwJZyKFojkTZrVD4a-24zMcw6dyD-na6Y9qrxjC_r0_Bf3O0MNg_9VY0e_Bns4ZoxZKhYVmDH4cPBkMFHxIZ5PmYNYVOpiKZ9L_H2axROpPp4puyobbNDpzfcA84RMSPg5J4PHsvWwq4lXFbPKEoYpk_hczv_VOG-4PT6Tgwve-ix6A/s555/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="466" data-original-width="555" height="377" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiM59yGJt7EaXwJZyKFojkTZrVD4a-24zMcw6dyD-na6Y9qrxjC_r0_Bf3O0MNg_9VY0e_Bns4ZoxZKhYVmDH4cPBkMFHxIZ5PmYNYVOpiKZ9L_H2axROpPp4puyobbNDpzfcA84RMSPg5J4PHsvWwq4lXFbPKEoYpk_hczv_VOG-4PT6Tgwve-ix6A/w449-h377/1.jpg" width="449" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-69602688166043294412022-11-24T19:08:00.002-08:002022-11-24T19:09:14.389-08:00History of square root When algebra was first developed the Arabic scholars used the term 'root' to describe the solutions to equations and this was directly translated into various European languages when the ideas were transferred. <br /><br />The mathematical concept of square roots has been in existence for many thousands of years. No one knows who invented the square root, but it is thought that the knowledge of square roots originally came from dividing areas of land into equal parts so that the length of the side of a square became the square root of its area. <br /><br />Babylonian clay tablets from 1900 to 1600 BC contain the squares and cubes of the integers 1 to 30 in Babylonian base 60 Akkadian notation. Whole number roots were specifically stated, while irrational roots were expressed in surprisingly accurate approximations. <br /><br />The Babylonians and Greeks have been credited with the discovery of Heron’s method, the precursor of Newton’s iterative method, although Indian mathematicians are thought to have used a similar system around 800 BC. <br /><br />The ancient Egyptians created the square root and most likely used it for architecture, building pyramids and other daily activities that required math. <br /><br />The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is a copy from 1650 BC of an earlier Berlin Papyrus and other texts, shows how the Egyptians extracted square roots by an inverse proportion method. <br /><br />The Egyptian name for the square root was called the <i>kenbet</i>, and it looked like a right angle, similar to the current square root symbol. It is believed that the reason behind the right-angle shape was to depict that the square root was similar to the corner of box; it was the “root” of the area because it had equal lengths. <br /><br />Hundreds of years later (somewhere between 900 and 400 BC), ancient Indian mathematicians used square roots in their work. <br /><br />Chinese mathematical writings from around 200 BC show that square roots were being approximated using an excess and deficiency method. <br /><br />It is the Middle Eastern mathematician al-Khwarizmi who developed currently familiar term root to denote a solution to a problem. <br /><br />In 1450 AD Regiomontanus invented a symbol for a square root, written as an elaborate R. The square root symbol √ was first used in print in 1525.<br /><b>History of square root<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipISz-c04H0D16w9UUnWOC85iGM3vHifKpgi8K5BvV30dZUyYSOnXuv9XLYNA_AeN6w0O5a3D-DvZhdIBtdofA5_L1MFhZb6wpgXbrHnj5fKxuP0mxVA6_vFSZ_e6gRMFfXMpnGByYP_rnDm0430i8L1-05yLSRtwThA_OsB0zonZQDQWLMKQdbpZW/s1050/1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="696" data-original-width="1050" height="319" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipISz-c04H0D16w9UUnWOC85iGM3vHifKpgi8K5BvV30dZUyYSOnXuv9XLYNA_AeN6w0O5a3D-DvZhdIBtdofA5_L1MFhZb6wpgXbrHnj5fKxuP0mxVA6_vFSZ_e6gRMFfXMpnGByYP_rnDm0430i8L1-05yLSRtwThA_OsB0zonZQDQWLMKQdbpZW/w482-h319/1.jpg" width="482" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-62255110751932000372022-11-04T04:50:00.001-07:002022-11-04T04:50:07.166-07:00Discovery of siliconSilica (SiO2) in the form of sharp flints were among the first tools made by humans. The ancient civilizations used other forms of silica such as rock crystal, and knew how to turn sand into glass. The manufacture of glass containing silica was carried out both by the Egyptians—at least as early as 1500 BCE—and by the Phoenicians. In 1789, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier proposed that a new chemical element could be found in quartz. He was right about the new element. Silicon accounts for 28% of the weight of Earth’s crust. <br /><br />In 1808 in England, Humphry Davy isolated partly pure silicon for the first time, but he did not realize it. He was mistaken that the new chemical element as a compound rather than an element. <br /><br />In 1811, Joseph Gay Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard reacted silicon tetrachloride with potassium metal and produced some very impure form of silicon. They did not, however, attempt to purify this new substance. <br /><br />In 1824, Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius produced a sample of amorphous silicon, a brown solid, by reacting potassium fluorosilicate with potassium and purifying the product by stirring it with water, with which it reacts, and thereby obtained relatively pure silicon powder. He named the new element silicium. Today, silicon is produced by heating sand (SiO2) with carbon to temperatures approaching 2200°C. <br /><br />Silicon was given its name in 1831 by Scottish chemist Thomas Thomson. He retained part of Berzelius’s name, from ‘silicis,’ meaning flint. Flint is a type of hard rock that was used by many early civilizations to make tools and weapons. <br /><br />In 1854, Henri Deville produced crystalline silicon for the first time. He first prepared crystalline silicon, the second allotropic form of the element. <br /><br />1954 witnessed the creation of the first commercial silicon transistor. The creation of semiconductors most commonly uses sand as starting material because of its high percentage of silicon.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Discovery of silicon<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrLWolbvjBqepTm-Y6yRqMl3Leb6UUpttJNSqp7xodqt1RqTp0okHKrJIOnTN3tpruC8EbWHCzzH_59dVfGxTcu3LIcrAPOD9wxei5LPQt-L2kkUOkh9sLiB02iBQ8hycCf-KOh-kyukHjorhEZ-7Tip8IbcWvOqmr6Eoo-V3MkZtGApGLF3hO2fy5/s606/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="606" data-original-width="469" height="529" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrLWolbvjBqepTm-Y6yRqMl3Leb6UUpttJNSqp7xodqt1RqTp0okHKrJIOnTN3tpruC8EbWHCzzH_59dVfGxTcu3LIcrAPOD9wxei5LPQt-L2kkUOkh9sLiB02iBQ8hycCf-KOh-kyukHjorhEZ-7Tip8IbcWvOqmr6Eoo-V3MkZtGApGLF3hO2fy5/w410-h529/1.jpg" width="410" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-79307227536054838522022-09-21T09:52:00.004-07:002022-09-21T09:52:00.169-07:00Thomas Willis and circle of arteriesIn 1664 the British scientist Thomas Willis (1621-1675) described in his treatise about a circle of arteries at the base of the brain that act as a traffic for the blood flowing to the head.<br />
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Willis landmark text, <i>Cerebri Anatome</i>, 1664, was reproduced many times and developed into a pocket-sized standard textbook for medical students.<br />
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The circle of Willis provides a potential diversion for collateral blood supply following the occlusion of one major cranial arteries feeding, into it.<br />
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Because of Willis’s thorough illustrations and explanation of this structure, it is known today as the circle of Willis.<br />
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Scientists had observed this circle as early as the 16th century, but it was Thomas Willis, Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, who first noted it importance in directing the flow of blood. He was aware of this feature and asked his friend Christopher Wren, the architect of Canterbury Cathedral, to illustrate the arterial circle which he did masterfully.<br />
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Wren had for the first time injected fluid into the vessels of an animal while being architect for King Charles II, for whom he built St. Paul’s Cathedral in London and 53 other churches.<br />
<b>Thomas Willis and circle of arteries<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjimSZ_9nNHpK1j52rU67ttCad7cuI34VQ3yz_SYCKPkZxMZUDciiQGP7_fDd-5v6IdCyHPN_bslAm_uJMC6FtEqbrhd6Xbb3Cwmoj6jTPj36ZdMW1xd_EbJZybEK1Tz16iIiJhfrottv-55bKGy2LrcUaHmgepum_4rJcW8NdWTECxbwmr-aqt566d/s635/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="635" data-original-width="421" height="530" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjimSZ_9nNHpK1j52rU67ttCad7cuI34VQ3yz_SYCKPkZxMZUDciiQGP7_fDd-5v6IdCyHPN_bslAm_uJMC6FtEqbrhd6Xbb3Cwmoj6jTPj36ZdMW1xd_EbJZybEK1Tz16iIiJhfrottv-55bKGy2LrcUaHmgepum_4rJcW8NdWTECxbwmr-aqt566d/w351-h530/1.jpg" width="351" /></a></div></b>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-27564417286755944812022-09-14T23:27:00.001-07:002022-09-14T23:27:03.456-07:00History of EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is one of several omega-3 fatty acids. It is found in cold-water fatty fish, such as salmon. It is also found in fish oil supplements, along with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). <br /><br />In 1929 and 1930, a husband-and-wife team published two papers in the Journal of Biological Chemistry that turned the notion on its head. Through meticulous analyses of rats fed special diets, George and Mildred Burr discovered that fatty acids were critical to health. <br /><br />Omega-3 fatty acid research really started to pick up the pace with the Greenland Eskimos in the 1970s. During the 1970’s, Jørn Dyerberg traveled with Professor H.O. Bang, Professor Hugh Sinclair and others to Greenland to study Inuit eating habits. Specifically, they investigated high fish and shellfish consumption among the Inuit. <br /><br />Jorn Dyerberg and Hans Bang documented the Eskimo diet, along with their plasma lipid profiles and blood fatty acid levels. It was in these studies that they “discovered” omega-3 fatty acids – in both the diets and blood. <br /><br />The Lancet July 15, 1978 published their work that hypothesized that EPA could reduce risk for thrombosis and atherosclerosis. They presented data supporting the idea that EPA (from the seafoods consumed by these Inuit people) could substitute for arachidonic acid in the cyclo-oxygenase pathway in platelets and reduce platelet “stickiness.” <br /><br />The study linked a diet rich in omega-3 fish oils with heart health, something Jorn Dyerberg and his colleague, Dr. Hans Olaf Bang, discovered while researching an Inuit population on the coast of Greenland. Since this revelation, the cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) have been confirmed by hundreds of other clinical studies. <br /><br />Since then, that hypothesis has been well-confirmed and other beneficial mechanisms have been discovered as well. More than 40 years later, omega-3 fatty acids, including EPA, are considered to be one of the, if not the, most researched nutrients.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">History of EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuiM6a_7RvSEgk2EmdyV-hRnPLOl4IKR6dxxnVwPnpuP1OxuNlGPwvm_L03Ypvs-6kgmzk5IzowMkWcCgmV4iLxRNpgAUfPm-6zf_L3NiE5EN6P08RJtl0oAwsYwkACfxT8QEJxHR_PiNVKCKAbyqyK4ltJQUGXF0QT9vBikX1volM1Yv7kVbV_2Mz/s1024/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="682" data-original-width="1024" height="317" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuiM6a_7RvSEgk2EmdyV-hRnPLOl4IKR6dxxnVwPnpuP1OxuNlGPwvm_L03Ypvs-6kgmzk5IzowMkWcCgmV4iLxRNpgAUfPm-6zf_L3NiE5EN6P08RJtl0oAwsYwkACfxT8QEJxHR_PiNVKCKAbyqyK4ltJQUGXF0QT9vBikX1volM1Yv7kVbV_2Mz/w475-h317/1.jpg" width="475" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-50014881761933300742022-08-16T20:39:00.000-07:002022-08-16T20:39:01.490-07:00History of glutenAbout 10,000 years ago in Asia, grains first began to be cultivated by humans. Hunting and gathering gave way to farming. Early forms of wheat are believed to have been cultivated at least as early as 9000 BC. Gluten appeared as a consequence of agricultural practices initiated 10000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent of southwest Asia. <br /><br />Gluten is a protein naturally found in some grains. Gluten is a Latin word that means “glue,” due to its ability to hold grains like wheat, barley, and rye together. <br /><br />After 8000 BC, the cultivation of wheat – particularly emmer wheat – began spreading to other parts of the world, hitting Greece, Cyprus, and India by 6500 BC; and Germany by 5000 BC. It wasn’t until the 19th century that wheat was milled in large quantities and gluten assumed a more prominent place in the diet. <br /><br />The Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia wrote the first account of the disease around the first century AD. He described patients whose food passed through them without being digested, calling the disease the coeliac diathesis, stemming from the Greek word ‘koalia’, meaning abdomen. <br /><br />For centuries afterward, the diagnosis served as a death sentence, as no one knew the cause or any treatment. Gluten was discovered by Jacopo Bartolomeo Beccari, in Bologna (Italy) in 1728. However, the lixiviation process still used today to get gluten and the chemical characterization of this new material was performed by the physician Johannes Kesselmeyer in Strasbourg (France), in 1759. <br /><br />It was only in the 20th century that celiac disease was truly discovered and named by the medical community. <br /><br />Multiple diets were used to treat celiac disease until 1953, when Dicke, Weijers, and van de Kamer identified gluten as the cause of the symptoms. Coeliac disease was actually discovered all the way back in the 1940’s by physician Willem Dicke. Dicke was the medical director at a children’s hospital and became increasingly interested in coeliac disease after attending a presentation on it back in 1932<br /><b>History of gluten<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOrlts52AYQudRAVKPWb61nwM1man5mAoCBrQaCssyAaSuy2xzJxULacRmdJD1fxX-2tGMtA8X0DEhxt8yXaaRAyF3CCWRLf6mHhcSFxIzNFufW2vm9IwIPp3sVm5AwhvnJ-WQiTcjZc9SKRX65apiVzz9H_2izAl9mlX-CBNyoiUr0sBsVtfa-5Sg/s434/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="333" data-original-width="434" height="334" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOrlts52AYQudRAVKPWb61nwM1man5mAoCBrQaCssyAaSuy2xzJxULacRmdJD1fxX-2tGMtA8X0DEhxt8yXaaRAyF3CCWRLf6mHhcSFxIzNFufW2vm9IwIPp3sVm5AwhvnJ-WQiTcjZc9SKRX65apiVzz9H_2izAl9mlX-CBNyoiUr0sBsVtfa-5Sg/w434-h334/1.jpg" width="434" /></a></div></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-4082365623301206382022-08-06T08:56:00.000-07:002022-08-06T08:56:00.188-07:00Discovery of riboflavinThe British chemist Alexander W. Blyth in 1879 isolated from milk whey a water-soluble, yellow fluorescent compound he called lactochrome, appropriately named for its color and origin. ‘Lacto’ from the milk and ‘chrome’ meaning color because of the yellow pigment.<br /><br />The search to identify these accessory food factors in milk, whole wheat, yeast, and liver began in the early 1900s.<br /><br />McCollum and assistant Marguerite Davis produced three papers in 1915 which showed a diet containing 2% of wheat embryo or milk powder with polished rice, casein, salts, and butter fat provided enough of an ‘essential accessory’ to support growth of young rats. <br /><br />The importance of lactochrome was not fully realized until later investigational studies by Elmer McCollum and Kennedy (1916), Emmett and Luros, and Smith and Hendrick that showed the preventive capabilities of water-soluble food extracts against beriberi, pellagra, and pellagra-like dermatitis.<br /><br />Several years later, the physiological role of the yellow growth factor was shown by Warburg and Christian (1932) to be a component of a yeast “Zwischenferment,” which was designated the “old yellow enzyme.”<br /><br />Joseph Goldberger in 1927 proposed there was an anti-pellagra factor in eggs, milk, etc., and it was the same substance as ‘water-soluble B’ identified by McCollum. Goldberger called the substance the pellagra-preventative or P-P dietary factor.<br /><br />In 1935 Richard Kuhn at Heidelberg, and Paul Karrer at the University of Zurich eventually succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, now termed riboflavin. They were awarded the Nobel Prize for this and other achievements in 1937 and 1938, respectively. Kuhn first proved that riboflavin is an essential growth factor, viz., vitamin B2.<br /><br />Kuhn also developed a synthetic route to riboflavin which was licensed to the German company I. G. Farben.<br /><br />Theorell in 1937 identified the isoalloxazine derivative from the old yellow enzyme as riboflavin-5′-phosphate, also called FMN (flavin mononucleotide). The structure of a second coenzymic form was established by Warburg and Christian (1938) as FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) and was shown to participate as the coenzyme of d-amino acid oxidase.<br />Discovery of riboflavin<div><br /></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-86888897359195120922022-07-23T00:34:00.000-07:002022-07-23T00:34:05.001-07:00History of citric acid The history of citric acid was started in 1784 with W. Scheele. Carl Wilhelm Scheele Swedish–German chemist was first isolated from the lemon juice as calcium citrate, which treated with sulphuric acid gave citric acid in the liquid phase. It has since been found in other citrus fruits, pineapples, and even animal tissues. <br /><br />Citric acid synthesis was first indicated as a fungal product by Wehmer in 1893 by a strain of <i>Penicillium glaucum</i> on sugar- based medium. After a few years, he isolated and cultivated two types of fungal strains with the capability to accumulate citric acid, which was selected <i>Citromyces</i> (<i>Penicillium</i>). However, microbial production of citric acid did not become industrially important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. The world production of this citric acid by fermentation is rapidly increasing. <br /><br />In 1917 Pfizer hired James Currie, a food chemist, who had the daring idea of producing citric acid without using citrus. The production of citric acid is the oldest and most thoroughly studied filamentous fungal fermentation, dating back to 1917, when Currie optimized the conditions using a surface cultivation method. <br /><br />The first citric acid fermentation was performed in surface cultures. In 1930, some units imbedded in England, in Soviet Union, and for the profitable production of citric acid in Germany. <br /><br />The crystalline structure of anhydrous citric acid, obtain by cooling hot concentrated solution of the monohydrate form, was first discovered by Yuill and Bennet in 1934 by X-ray diffraction. In 1960 Nordman and co-workers further two molecules of acid are linked through hydrogen bond between two -COOH group of each monomer. <br /><br />The central role of citric acid in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms was undisclosed by Krebs in the late 1930s. <br /><br />Citric acid plays a central role in the biochemical cycle found by Kerbs in 1937. The production of citric acid lemon juice peaked in year 1915-1916 at 17,500 tonnes. <br /><br />In 2011, Bichara and co-workers published the outcomes of the structural and vibrational theoretical study for the citric acid dimer. <br /><br />Albert Szent-Györgyi at the University of Szeged (Hungary) and Hans Adolf Krebs at the University of Sheffield (UK); were the two key researchers awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1937 and 1953, respectively for contribution to the discovery and establishment of the citric acid cycle.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">History of citric acid<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgodbpU8zJbeUuurcqYRuWuxUdbYIHqcBTGrDmtoIuJT2dg2QZBgyHe_-XVleKkYfMCCNc-J7jAEzRyqj0AjHmKrXXPJFFodlErqPGfOdGrNFCjfm915ltjFKtImsZaUHtA-8hz8M3RG_elzDtyhH2reV6f-wCuWgyT0JHLE1cvN29o2Om3ePxoGHtd/s1100/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="668" data-original-width="1100" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgodbpU8zJbeUuurcqYRuWuxUdbYIHqcBTGrDmtoIuJT2dg2QZBgyHe_-XVleKkYfMCCNc-J7jAEzRyqj0AjHmKrXXPJFFodlErqPGfOdGrNFCjfm915ltjFKtImsZaUHtA-8hz8M3RG_elzDtyhH2reV6f-wCuWgyT0JHLE1cvN29o2Om3ePxoGHtd/w455-h276/1.jpg" width="455" /></a></div> </span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-37354866162729571422022-06-24T20:22:00.004-07:002022-06-24T20:22:51.433-07:00History of dietary fiberIn the 1930s, J. H. Kellogg confirmed the positive effects of wheat bran on patients suffering with colitis and constipation. 1953 British physician, Dr. Eben Hipsley coined the term dietary fiber as a nondigestible constituents making up the plant cell wall and further its definition has seen several revisions. He coined the phrase “dietary fiber” in an article on pregnancy toxaemia. <br /><br />Between 1972 and 1976, Trowell, Burkitt, Walker, Painter, and co-workers (2–6) adopted Hipsley’s term in conjunction with a number of health-related hypotheses they were developing, referred to as their “dietary fiber hypotheses.” Having spent a significant part of their careers studying populations in sub-Saharan Africa, British researchers Denis Burkitt and Hugh Trowell published the opinion that the reason why native Africans had low rates of diseases such as diverticulosis, diabetes, gallstones, arteriosclerosis, and ischemic heart disease, which were frequently seen in developed countries, may be the result of a high intake of fiber. <br /><br />By 1976, the dietary fiber definition had been broadened to include all indigestible polysaccharides (mostly plant storage saccharides), such as gums, modified celluloses, mucilages, oligosaccharides, and pectins. <br /><br />Between 1980s–2000s: many definitions evolved nationally and internationally. By 1985, Leon Prosky had successfully led a collaborative effort to reach consensus within the scientific community on dietary fiber methodology. <br /><br />In 2001 the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommended that "dietary fiber" be defined as the nondigestible carbohydrates that occur naturally in plants.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">History of dietary fiber<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj10jMGskT57tmSsgtPup2YRHoz4IYSMAydXIl6Nwd1ma4_MvmawyTjP7BpB_MSqXRD8yXv61RR9wBiJRi9O3yYkL9VrQWz9AFolC0TGNWsjoAe9r1zXwKcbqFLr7PaQIlw_PLkyUiRcXEFs1w_nVin8iK7CVEknwEF1MVEmuJBZFXCDU7Quz2NR_9a/s673/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="645" data-original-width="673" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj10jMGskT57tmSsgtPup2YRHoz4IYSMAydXIl6Nwd1ma4_MvmawyTjP7BpB_MSqXRD8yXv61RR9wBiJRi9O3yYkL9VrQWz9AFolC0TGNWsjoAe9r1zXwKcbqFLr7PaQIlw_PLkyUiRcXEFs1w_nVin8iK7CVEknwEF1MVEmuJBZFXCDU7Quz2NR_9a/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2140956719677702964.post-83682311055671811852022-05-17T11:20:00.006-07:002022-05-17T11:20:54.006-07:00Discovery of Krebs cycle by German biochemist, Hans Adolf KrebsThe Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle was discovered by Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, (born Aug. 25, 1900, Hildesheim, Ger.—died Nov. 22, 1981, Oxford, Eng.), German-born British biochemist who received (together with Fritz Lipmann) the 1953 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. <br /><br />Krebs was educated at the Gymnasium Andreanum at Hildesheim and between the years 1918 and 1923 he studied medicine at the Universities of Göttingen, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and Berlin. <br /><br />At the University of Sheffield of England, Dr. Krebs and William Johnson published the work that led to the discovery of the citric acid cycle. These studies were performed in the pigeon breast muscle, which is the powerful muscle necessary for flight. This was a particularly good model as this muscle maintained its oxidative capacity after its disruption and suspension in aqueous media. <br /><br />In 1937 Hans Krebs was able to present a complete picture of an important part of metabolism—the citric acid cycle. The Krebs cycle reactions involve the conversion—in the presence of oxygen—of substances that are formed by the breakdown of sugars, fats, and protein components to carbon dioxide, water, and energy-rich compounds. In the Krebs cycle, acetate, originating from the degradation of sugars or fatty acids, is further degraded to carbon dioxide, thereby yielding energy in the form of ATP and GTP molecules. <br /><br />In 1945, only one element was missing from the cycle, the 2-carbon compound. A German-American biochemist, Fritz Lipmann identified it as a coenzyme – a molecule that when attached to a specific molecule forms an active enzyme. It was named Coenzyme A – “A” for the activation of acetate in the Krebs cycle. <br /><br />The citric acid cycle brought Dr. Krebs international fame, and it is considered to this day his greatest scientific achievement.<br /><b><span style="color: #cc0000;">Discovery of Krebs cycle by German biochemist, Hans Adolf Krebs<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvQQErVSU7roO3pvgJN0-U5IIJtWTPMscf0I_Eb9GYI4SQLb4oO0F7nqpCo-QeJYgsCVbTwsc8e91wzTC0cMI6in5yQBXaQg1oHyeIh6uHWdpp3EBGjy3sJMZIBzTAXUGzjplE-iEqnOVyCp7fEWbttIu9pApmKGG_6XjMqXceX2rwlMQnwrpa81sQ/s797/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="797" data-original-width="673" height="541" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvQQErVSU7roO3pvgJN0-U5IIJtWTPMscf0I_Eb9GYI4SQLb4oO0F7nqpCo-QeJYgsCVbTwsc8e91wzTC0cMI6in5yQBXaQg1oHyeIh6uHWdpp3EBGjy3sJMZIBzTAXUGzjplE-iEqnOVyCp7fEWbttIu9pApmKGG_6XjMqXceX2rwlMQnwrpa81sQ/w457-h541/1.jpg" width="457" /></a></div></span></b>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com