Biography of Waksman, Selman Abraham (1888 – 1973)

Biography of Waksman, Selman Abraham (1888 – 1973)
Russian born United States biochemist, who won the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the antibiotic streptomycin.

After immigrating to the USA in 1910, Waksman studied at Rutgers University and the University of California, from which he received his PhD in 1918. He returned to Rutgers as a lecturer in soil microbiology, becoming professor (1930 – 40) and then professor of microbiology (1940 – 58). He was made emeritus professor on his retirement in 1958.

Waksman’s special field was soil microbiology, in particular the role of fungi and bacteria in the decomposition of organic matter and humus formation. He wrote Principles of Soil Microbiology (1927), one of the most comprehensive works on the subject at that time. The discovery of penicillin’s therapeutic potential encouraged Waksman to investigate the soil microorganisms called actinomycetes in the hope of finding new antibiotics (a terminology introduced by Waksman in 1941).

In 1944 he announced the discovery of streptomycin, which he had isolated from Streptomyces griseus. This was the first safe antibiotic found that was effective against Gram-negative bacteria, including the species responsible for tuberculosis, which are resistant to penicillin. He later discovered another antibiotic, neomycin, obtained from Streptomyces fradiae. This is used to treat bowel infections and local skin or eye infections.
Biography of Waksman, Selman Abraham (1888 – 1973)

Computer programming –the history

Computer programming –the history
The earliest programmable machine (that is a machine whose behavior can be controlled by changes to a "program") was Al-Jazari's programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties.

In the 17 Century, the first calculating machines were invented by Wilhelm Schickard and Blaise Pascal (who created the "Pascaline" in 1642). These mechanical devices were remarkable creations but they could only perform specific calculations.

The Jacquard Loom, developed in 1801 invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, is often quoted as a source of prior art. Herman Hollerith refined the machine and invented the Hollerith punched card, the card reader, and the key punch machine.

In 1946, Konrad Zues, a German engineer, develops the world’s first programming language Plankalkul, while hiding in the Bavarian Alps waiting for the war end. The language has even tables and data structures. The language is however buried in some German archive.

In the US, a team of Harvard and IBM scientists led by Howard Aiken were also working on a programmable computer. This computer, called Mark I, was completed in 1944. The person who is credited with fully harnessing the power of this programmable computer is Captain Grace Murray Hopper.


In 1954 IBM begins the development of FORTRAN based on A-O. The root of this language is still used with mathematic expressions. The invention of the Von Neumann architecture allowed computer programs to be stored in computer memory.

In 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen write a version of BASIC which they sell to MITS. MITS produces 8080-based Altair-microcomputers.
Computer programming –the history