The identification of essential fatty acids by George and Mildred Burr in 1929

The discovery of essential fatty acids (EFAs) by George and Mildred Burr in 1929 was a transformative moment in nutritional science. Before their groundbreaking work, dietary fats were seen primarily as a source of energy, largely interchangeable with carbohydrates. The Burrs’ meticulous research demonstrated otherwise, revealing that certain fatty acids were indispensable for health.

Using rats as their model organism, the Burrs conducted a series of controlled experiments that involved feeding the animals fat-free diets. The results were striking: the rats exhibited poor growth, developed scaly skin lesions, and eventually succumbed to their ailments. The symptoms were reversed when the rats were supplemented with specific fats, leading the Burrs to identify linoleic acid—a polyunsaturated fatty acid—as essential for life. This discovery not only redefined the role of fats in nutrition but also challenged the prevailing view that fats served solely as a source of calories.

The implications of the Burrs' work extended far beyond the laboratory. Their research laid the foundation for the concept of EFAs, a class of nutrients critical for maintaining numerous physiological functions. EFAs, including linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid), are now recognized for their roles in maintaining cell membrane structure, regulating inflammation, and supporting brain and retinal development. Deficiencies in EFAs have been linked to various health issues, including immune dysfunction, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Modern research has expanded on the Burrs' findings, uncovering the broader significance of EFAs in human health. Omega-3 fatty acids, for instance, are now celebrated for their anti-inflammatory properties and their potential to reduce the risk of chronic conditions such as heart disease, arthritis, and depression. The role of EFAs in prenatal and early childhood development has also been emphasized, with dietary guidelines recommending adequate intake of these nutrients during pregnancy and breastfeeding.

The discovery of EFAs by George and Mildred Burr not only revolutionized nutritional biochemistry but also reshaped public health policies and dietary recommendations. Today, their work continues to inspire research into the complex roles of fats in human health, underscoring their importance in a balanced diet. This seminal discovery remains a cornerstone in our understanding of the intricate relationship between nutrition and well-being.
The identification of essential fatty acids by George and Mildred Burr in 1929

George O. Burr

History and Discovery of Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP)

The history of electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) is a story of scientific discovery intertwined with military innovation and the challenges of modern technology. An EMP is a short burst of electromagnetic energy caused by a rapid acceleration of charged particles, capable of disrupting or damaging electronic systems and infrastructure. The understanding of EMPs evolved significantly over the 20th century, particularly in the context of nuclear weapons research and testing.

The concept of EMPs was first noted in the early 20th century as scientists explored electromagnetic phenomena. However, the transformative moment came during the Manhattan Project in World War II, which developed the first atomic bombs. In 1945, when the bombs were detonated over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, scientists observed anomalous electrical disturbances, though the underlying mechanisms were not fully understood. These observations laid the groundwork for further research.

The pivotal discoveries about EMPs occurred during high-altitude nuclear tests conducted in the early 1960s. The United States' 1962 Starfish Prime test, which detonated a nuclear warhead 400 kilometers above the Pacific Ocean, provided critical insights. The test produced a massive EMP that disrupted electronics and power grids over 1,400 kilometers away in Hawaii, damaging streetlights, telecommunications, and other infrastructure. Similar tests conducted by the Soviet Union corroborated these findings, confirming that high-altitude nuclear detonations could generate EMP effects capable of impacting vast geographic areas.

The scientific understanding gained from these tests highlighted the potential vulnerability of modern electronic systems. By the mid-20th century, EMP research expanded beyond nuclear detonations. Scientists and engineers began to explore non-nuclear EMP sources, including solar geomagnetic storms and specialized electromagnetic weapons. The Carrington Event of 1859, a massive solar storm that caused widespread telegraph disruptions, was retrospectively understood as a natural EMP event, further illustrating the scope of the phenomenon.

These discoveries prompted governments to take action. Military organizations and infrastructure planners began developing shielding technologies, such as Faraday cages, to protect critical systems from EMP damage. The U.S. and allied nations also incorporated EMP survivability into the design of strategic assets, including missile defense systems and command centers. In recent years, concerns about EMP threats have expanded to include the risks posed by non-state actors and natural solar events, driving ongoing innovation in EMP protection.

In conclusion, the history of EMPs reflects a fusion of scientific discovery and strategic necessity, underscoring their significant impact on modern technology and national security.
History and Discovery of Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP)

Uranium: From Discovery to Nuclear Impact

The history and discovery of uranium is a captivating tale that began in the late 18th century. The element was first identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth while he was analyzing the mineral pitchblende, a complex mineral now known as uraninite. Klaproth, intrigued by the mineral's unusual properties, isolated a new element which he named uranium, in honor of the recently discovered planet Uranus. This naming was symbolic, linking the newly discovered element to the expanding horizons of scientific discovery.

The isolation of uranium metal itself was not achieved until 1841, when French chemist Eugène-Melchior Péligot succeeded in reducing uranium tetrachloride with potassium. Péligot's work was a significant milestone, as it allowed for the study of uranium in its pure metallic form, opening new avenues for research and application. Despite this achievement, the broader implications of uranium were not immediately apparent.

It was not until 1896 that the true significance of uranium began to emerge, thanks to the French physicist Henri Becquerel. He discovered uranium's radioactive properties while studying the mineral’s ability to produce radiation without an external energy source. This groundbreaking discovery was instrumental in the development of nuclear physics and chemistry, revealing the underlying principles of radioactivity and leading to further research by scientists like Marie and Pierre Curie.

The potential of uranium was dramatically underscored in 1938, when German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission. This process involves the splitting of an atomic nucleus into smaller fragments, releasing a prodigious amount of energy. The discovery of nuclear fission was a pivotal moment, leading to the development of nuclear reactors, which provided a new, powerful source of energy, and atomic bombs, which had profound implications for global politics and warfare.

Thus, uranium's role in history is marked by its dual nature as both a source of immense energy and a catalyst for scientific progress. Its discovery and subsequent applications have had enduring effects, fundamentally shaping the modern world in energy production, scientific research, and geopolitical dynamics.
Uranium: From Discovery to Nuclear Impact

Discovery of Hafnium: Impact on Chemistry and Technology

Hevesy George Charles von's discovery of hafnium in 1923, alongside Dirk Coster, was a milestone in chemistry, adding significant depth to our understanding of the periodic table. Hafnium, with the atomic number 72, was one of the last elements predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table to be found in nature. Its discovery confirmed the accuracy of Mendeleev's predictions and filled a critical gap, validating the periodic law.

Hafnium is named after "Hafnia," the Latin name for Copenhagen, where Hevesy and Coster made their discovery. The journey to identifying hafnium was not straightforward. Despite numerous efforts, the element eluded detection because it closely resembled zirconium, making it difficult to separate from its chemically similar counterpart. The breakthrough came with the use of X-ray spectroscopy, a technique that allowed Hevesy and Coster to distinguish hafnium from zirconium by its unique spectral lines.

This discovery had significant implications for both theoretical and applied chemistry. Hafnium is found in zirconium ores, such as zircon, and typically occurs in a concentration of about 1-5% relative to zirconium. Its chemical properties are so similar to zirconium that the two elements are often found together in nature and are difficult to separate. However, hafnium has unique characteristics that make it invaluable in various high-tech applications.

Hafnium's most notable property is its ability to absorb neutrons, which makes it extremely valuable in nuclear reactors. It is used in control rods that regulate the fission process, ensuring the safe operation of nuclear power plants. This neutron-absorbing capability also makes hafnium essential in the manufacture of nuclear submarines and other nuclear-powered vessels.

Beyond nuclear applications, hafnium's high melting point and corrosion resistance make it a key component in high-temperature alloys and ceramics. These materials are crucial for the aerospace industry, where they are used in jet engines and spacecraft, as well as in plasma cutting tools and other advanced manufacturing technologies.

In recent years, hafnium has found a place in the semiconductor industry. Hafnium dioxide (HfO₂) is used as an insulator in field-effect transistors (FETs) for modern microprocessors and memory devices. Its superior insulating properties enable the continued miniaturization of electronic components, supporting the development of faster and more efficient computers and other electronic devices.

Hevesy's and Coster's discovery of hafnium thus not only filled a critical gap in the periodic table but also paved the way for advancements in numerous fields, from nuclear energy to aerospace and electronics. This discovery exemplifies the profound impact that fundamental scientific research can have on technology and industry.
Discovery of Hafnium: Impact on Chemistry and Technology

Understanding Black Holes: From Historical Theories to Modern Discoveries

Black holes, fascinating cosmic phenomena, are regions in space where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. This immense gravitational pull results from the black hole's density; it packs a vast amount of mass into a very small volume. Since light travels faster than any other known entity, the fact that it cannot escape a black hole means nothing else can either. This characteristic defines the inescapability of black holes.

Despite their extraordinary gravitational pull, black holes exert the same gravitational force on distant objects as any other object of equal mass would. For instance, if the Sun were magically compressed into a black hole of about one mile in diameter, Earth would continue to orbit the black hole just as it orbits the Sun now. The distance would mitigate the intense gravitational effects experienced near the event horizon of the black hole.

The concept of black holes has roots dating back to the 18th century. John Michell, a British geologist and astronomer, proposed an experiment that Henry Cavendish later used to measure Earth's mass, with results published in 1798. Michell's groundbreaking work in 1783 suggested that a star with the same density as the Sun but 500 times larger would possess such immense gravity that light could not escape it. He posited that while we couldn't see such a body, its gravitational influence would be detectable.

Pierre-Simon Laplace reached a similar conclusion in 1795, proposing that the most luminous bodies in the universe could be invisible due to their gravitational effects on light. Michell's considerations involved a celestial body with the density of the Sun (equivalent to the density of water), while Laplace considered a body with Earth's density, which is 5.5 times denser than water. The term "black hole" was coined in 1967 to describe these objects in space-time.

However, Laplace eventually abandoned the idea, and during the 19th century, the wave theory of light became more popular, overshadowing the particle theory. Those who believed light was composed of particles likened its behavior to that of a cannonball being pulled back to Earth. However, this analogy was flawed, as light maintains a constant speed, unlike a slowing cannonball.

The first significant theory addressing gravity's effect on light emerged from Einstein's General Theory of Relativity in 1905. It took time for this theory to be applied to the study of large stars' effects on light. In the early 20th century, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an Indian research student, used the General Theory of Relativity to explore the life cycle of stars. While en route to study under Arthur Eddington at Cambridge, Chandrasekhar calculated the maximum mass a star could have and remain stable despite its gravitational pull after cooling down.

Chandrasekhar's calculations demonstrated that stars exceeding a certain mass threshold could not remain stable and would ultimately collapse under their own gravity, potentially forming black holes. This revelation significantly advanced our understanding of stellar evolution and the conditions leading to black hole formation.

Modern astrophysics has built on these foundational ideas, utilizing advanced technology to detect and study black holes. Observations from telescopes like the Event Horizon Telescope have provided direct images of black holes, confirming theoretical predictions and offering deeper insights into their properties and behaviors. The study of black holes continues to be a dynamic and evolving field, shedding light on the most extreme conditions in the universe.
Understanding Black Holes: From Historical Theories to Modern Discoveries

Ibn al-Nafis: A Renaissance Man of Medicine

Born in 1213 A.D. in Damascus, Ala-al-Din Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi, better known as Ibn al-Nafis, commenced his extensive education at the Medical College Hospital (Bimaristan Al-Noori), established by Noor al-Din Al-Zanki. Alongside mastering medicine, he delved into jurisprudence, literature, and theology, fostering expertise in the Shafi'i School of Jurisprudence and gaining recognition as a skilled physician.

Relocating to Egypt in 1236, Ibn al-Nafis found success in his medical career. He began at Al-Nassri Hospital before transitioning to Al-Mansouri Hospital, ultimately ascending to the positions of chief of physicians and personal physician to the Sultan. Upon his passing in 1288 A.D., he magnanimously bequeathed his residence, library, and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital, ensuring a lasting legacy for future generations.

A prolific writer, Ibn al-Nafis embarked on ambitious projects such as "Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb," an encyclopedia intended to span 300 volumes. Though unfinished at his demise, the manuscript remains housed in Damascus. His groundbreaking contributions to ophthalmology and his renowned work "Mujaz al-Qanun" (The Summary of Law), alongside various commentaries, attest to his profound impact on medical knowledge. Commentaries on works by Hippocrates, Ibn Sina, and Hunayn Ibn Ishaq further showcase his deep engagement with medical discourse.

Among his original works, "Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya" stands out for its exploration of diet's influence on health, reflecting Ibn al-Nafis's holistic approach to medicine. However, his most significant contribution lies in the discovery of pulmonary circulation, a revelation only rediscovered by modern science centuries later. Ibn al-Nafis's accurate descriptions of lung structure, bronchial interactions, and the role of coronary arteries in heart function demonstrate his pioneering insights into cardiac and pulmonary physiology.

Ibn al-Nafis's enduring impact extends beyond the medical realm, shaping broader intellectual discourse. His interdisciplinary approach, coupled with seminal discoveries, underscores his indelible legacy. His life and work exemplify the rich intellectual tradition of the Islamic Golden Age, which continues to influence modern science and medicine.
Ibn al-Nafis: A Renaissance Man of Medicine

Unraveling the Mysteries of Protons: A Journey into Atomic Structure

Protons, those positively charged particles residing within the nucleus of an atom, are fundamental to understanding the nature of matter. While they may seem small, their significance in determining the characteristics of elements cannot be overstated. With a mass approximately 1,840 times that of an electron, protons play a crucial role in shaping the physical and chemical properties of atoms.

The story of protons begins with the pioneering work of Ernest Rutherford, whose experiments paved the way for our understanding of atomic structure. Building upon J.J. Thomson's discovery of electrons in 1897, Rutherford and his contemporaries sought to unravel the complexities of the atom. They reasoned that since electrons carried a negative charge, there must exist a positively charged counterpart to maintain the atom's overall neutrality.

In a series of groundbreaking experiments, Rutherford bombarded atoms with energetic alpha particles, which are essentially helium nuclei. By observing the trajectory of these particles after they interacted with atoms, Rutherford deduced the presence of a dense, positively charged nucleus within the atom. This nucleus, he concluded, was composed predominantly of protons.

The significance of Rutherford's discovery cannot be overstated. It provided the missing piece in the puzzle of atomic structure, confirming the existence of a positively charged particle within the nucleus. Through meticulous experimentation and analysis, Rutherford not only demonstrated the existence of protons but also laid the groundwork for future research in nuclear physics.

Furthermore, Rutherford's work highlighted the interconnectedness of various atomic constituents. By recognizing the relationship between alpha particles and the structure of the nucleus, he uncovered the fundamental nature of protons and their role in determining an atom's identity.

In essence, protons represent more than just positively charged particles; they embody our understanding of the building blocks of matter. Rutherford's discoveries paved the way for further exploration into the depths of atomic structure, shaping our modern understanding of chemistry and physics. As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the subatomic realm, the significance of protons remains ever-present, guiding our quest for knowledge and discovery.
Unraveling the Mysteries of Protons: A Journey into Atomic Structure

Photon Discovery Timeline

The photon, often referred to as the quantum of electromagnetic radiation, holds a pivotal position in the realm of physics due to its unique characteristics and fundamental role in understanding the nature of light.

In physics, a photon is defined as the smallest discrete quantity of electromagnetic radiation, possessing both wave-like and particle-like properties. Its significance lies in its role as the carrier of electromagnetic force and its involvement in various phenomena, from the photoelectric effect to the transmission of light.

Albert Einstein's 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect marked a significant milestone in the study of photons. The photoelectric effect, observed when light strikes a material surface, involves the ejection of electrons. Einstein proposed that light consists of discrete packets of energy, later termed photons, which interact with matter as individual particles. This concept challenged the prevailing notion of light as a continuous wave and laid the groundwork for quantum mechanics.

Einstein further elaborated on the concept of energy quantization in electromagnetic radiation, contrasting it with Maxwell's theory of classical electromagnetism. While Maxwell's theory described light as a continuous wave, Einstein suggested that light energy could be localized into distinct, quantized units—photons. This localization of energy into point-like quanta provided a novel perspective on the behavior of light and its interactions with matter.

Building upon Einstein's initial insights, further developments in photon theory emerged. Einstein's work demonstrated the relationship between photons and Planck's law of black-body radiation, revealing the quantized nature of energy emission and absorption. Additionally, Einstein proposed that photons possess momentum, contributing to their characterization as full-fledged particles with both energy and momentum.

Experimental validation of photon properties played a crucial role in solidifying the concept of photons. Robert Millikan's studies of the photoelectric effect from 1914 to 1916 provided empirical evidence supporting Einstein's theories, confirming the discrete nature of light energy. Arthur Holly Compton's experiments in 1923 demonstrated the phenomenon of photon scattering, providing direct proof of photon momentum and further bolstering the particle-like behavior of photons.

The recognition of Einstein's contributions to physics culminated in the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. While Einstein was most renowned for his theory of relativity, his discovery of photons was specifically acknowledged by the Swedish Academy, highlighting the significance of this breakthrough in the scientific community. Similarly, Arthur Holly Compton's Nobel Prize in 1927 underscored the experimental validation of photon momentum, affirming the importance of his work in advancing our understanding of light.

In conclusion, the discovery of photons revolutionized our understanding of light and its interactions with matter. From Einstein's theoretical insights to experimental confirmation by scientists like Compton, the study of photons has played a pivotal role in shaping modern physics. The recognition of these contributions underscores the enduring impact of photon theory on scientific progress and innovation.
Photon Discovery Timeline

Oort Cloud Discovery

The Oort cloud, also referred to as the Öpik-Oort cloud, constitutes a spherical layer composed of icy objects encircling the Sun, our star. Positioned at a distance ranging from approximately 2,000 to 100,000 astronomical units (AU) away from the Sun, it extends well beyond the Kuiper Belt and even the Sun's magnetic field, existing within what is technically considered interstellar space.

In 1932, Estonian astronomer Ernest J. Öpik put forth the notion of a remote reservoir of comets, arguing that the relatively rapid burning out of comets passing through the inner solar system necessitated a constant source of "fresh" comets to replenish the comet supply.

The discovery of the Oort cloud took place in 1950, when Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort identified it not through direct telescopic observations but rather via a theoretical analysis of long-period comets—those with orbital periods surpassing 200 years. These long-period comets can follow various orbits, including eccentric ellipses, parabolas, and even modest hyperbolas.

Professor Oort, widely recognized as one of the most eminent astronomers of the 20th century, excelled both as an observer and a theorist. He proposed the existence of a vast cloud comprising possibly 100 million comets surrounding our Solar System. Through his study of long-period comet orbits, Oort observed that many of them seemed to originate from a region much farther out than the orbit of Pluto.

Recently, astronomers Pedro Bernardinelli and Gary Bernstein made a captivating discovery of a celestial object named 2014 UN271. This object orbits the Sun and extends into the Oort cloud. Their finding emerged from a study of archival images collected during the Dark Energy Survey conducted between 2014 and 2018.
Oort Cloud Discovery

Radon transform by Johann Radon

The Radon transform is named after the Austrian mathematician Johann Karl August Radon (December16, 1887 – May 25, 1956). The Radon transform is an integral transform whose inverse is used to reconstruct images from medical CT scans.

Radon transform is able to transform two dimensional images with lines into a domain of possible line parameters, where each line in the image will give a peak positioned at the corresponding line parameters. This have led to many line detection applications within image processing, computer vision, and seismic.

A technique for using Radon transforms to reconstruct a map of a planet's polar regions using a spacecraft in a polar orbit has also been devised. The Radon Transformation is also used in various applications such as radar imaging, geophysical imaging, nondestructive testing and medical imaging.

Johann Radon had a remarkable career in mathematics: he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Vienna in Philosophy (for a thesis in the field of calculus of variations) in 1910.

After professorships in Hamburg, Greifswald, Erlangen, Breslau, and Innsbruck, he returned to the University of Vienna, where he became dean and later president of the University of Vienna.

In 1917, Johann Radon published his fundamental work, where he introduced what is now called the Radon transform. He presented a solution to the reconstruction problem with the Radon transform and its inversion formula. He developed this solution after building on the work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk.

His work went largely unnoticed until 1972 when Allan McLeod Cormack and Arkady Vainshtein declared its importance to the field. Johann Radon is well-known for his ground-breaking achievements in mathematics, such as the Radon-transformation, the Radon-numbers, the theorem of Radon, the theorem of Radon–Nikodym and the Radon–Riesz theorem.
Radon transform by Johann Radon

Discovery of Krebs cycle by German biochemist, Hans Adolf Krebs

The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle was discovered by Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, (born Aug. 25, 1900, Hildesheim, Ger.—died Nov. 22, 1981, Oxford, Eng.), German-born British biochemist who received (together with Fritz Lipmann) the 1953 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine.

Krebs was educated at the Gymnasium Andreanum at Hildesheim and between the years 1918 and 1923 he studied medicine at the Universities of Göttingen, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and Berlin.

At the University of Sheffield of England, Dr. Krebs and William Johnson published the work that led to the discovery of the citric acid cycle. These studies were performed in the pigeon breast muscle, which is the powerful muscle necessary for flight. This was a particularly good model as this muscle maintained its oxidative capacity after its disruption and suspension in aqueous media.

In 1937 Hans Krebs was able to present a complete picture of an important part of metabolism—the citric acid cycle. The Krebs cycle reactions involve the conversion—in the presence of oxygen—of substances that are formed by the breakdown of sugars, fats, and protein components to carbon dioxide, water, and energy-rich compounds. In the Krebs cycle, acetate, originating from the degradation of sugars or fatty acids, is further degraded to carbon dioxide, thereby yielding energy in the form of ATP and GTP molecules.

In 1945, only one element was missing from the cycle, the 2-carbon compound. A German-American biochemist, Fritz Lipmann identified it as a coenzyme – a molecule that when attached to a specific molecule forms an active enzyme. It was named Coenzyme A – “A” for the activation of acetate in the Krebs cycle.

The citric acid cycle brought Dr. Krebs international fame, and it is considered to this day his greatest scientific achievement.
Discovery of Krebs cycle by German biochemist, Hans Adolf Krebs

Roger J. Williams and vitamin B5

Pantothenic acid (also known as vitamin B5) is an essential nutrient that is naturally present in some foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. The main function of this water-soluble B vitamin is in the synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA) and acyl carrier protein.

Roger John Williams, an internationally biochemist and nutritional scientist is known to discover the growth-promoting vitamin pantothenic acid. After several years at the University of Oregon and Oregon State College, he joined the University of Texas at Austin in 1939.

His doctoral thesis was titled The Vitamin Requirement of Yeast, scholarship that attracted an unusual amount of attention and that proved to be the basis for much of his later work on nutrition.

Dr Williams spent most of his career as a teacher and researcher at the University of Texas, where he was professor of chemistry from 1934 until his retirement in 1971.

While at Oregon State College in 1933, Williams discovered and isolated pantothenic acid, also known as vitamin B5, an essential vitamin for synthesizing coenzyme-A and synthesizing and metabolizing proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Vitamin B5 was discovered during his studies on the vitamin B complex and yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth.

Its name is derived from the Greek word pantos that means "everywhere", which is appropriate for this widely distributed vitamin.

C.A. Elvehjem, and T.H. Jukes demonstrated that pantothenic acid was a growth and “anti-dermatitis” factor for chickens. In the 1950s, one of the functional forms of pantothenic acid, coenzyme A (CoA), was discovered as the cofactor essential for the acetylation of sulfonamides and choline.6 In the mid-1960s, pantothenic acid was next identified as a component of acyl carrier protein (ACP) in the fatty acid synthesis complex.
Roger J. Williams and vitamin B5

Discovery of benzene

Michael Faraday, an English scientist isolated a pure compound from the oily mixture in the year of 1825. Faraday succeeded in isolating the compound by distillation and crystallization of the light mobile oil left behind in the gas cylinders.

He named this liquid “bicarburet of hydrogen” and found that the boiling point to be 80 °C. He determined elemental analysis evidenced hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of 1:1, corresponding to an empirical formula of CH.

In 1834, Eilhardt Mitscherlich a German chemist conducted vapor density measurements on benzene. He synthesized the same compound by heating benzoic acid, isolated from gum benzoin, in the presence of lime.

Like Faraday, Mitscherlich found that the empirical formula was CH. A vapor-density measurement showed the molecular weight of about 78, for a molecular formula of C6H6. He named it as benzin, since it was derived from gum benzoin and now it is called, benzene.

German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann in 1845 successfully isolated benzene from coal tar. German chemists Joseph Loschmidt (in 1861) and August Kekulé von Stradonitz (in 1866) independently proposed a cyclic arrangement of six carbons with alternating single and double bonds.

In 1861, Loschmidt started writing a sort of ring structure for benzene with a circle symbolizing the six carbons to which were sticking six smaller circles representing the six hydrogen atoms.

August Kekulé, used the principles of structural theory to postulate a structure for the benzene molecule. He suggested that the carbon atoms of benzene are in a ring. They are bonded to each other by alternating single and double bonds, and one hydrogen atom is attached to each carbon atom.
Discovery of benzene

Discovery of free radical by Moses Gomberg

A free radical is an atom or a group of atoms with an odd number of electrons. The odd, unpaired electron in a free radical seeks to pair (form a bond) with another electron. A free radical readily reacts with another atom or group of atoms.

Nineteenth century scientists speculated that there could be a free radical containing carbon — an organic free radical. Ever since the term was introduced by Lavoisier1 in his Traité élémentaire de chimie in 1789 it has not only taken on variant meanings but has been in favour, then out, as new developments in the science convinced chemists that radicals exist, or are preposterous.

But after many attempts to isolate it failed, they concluded they were wrong and that carbon must always be tetravalent (form four bonds).

In 1900, Moses Gomberg, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Michigan, confirmed the existence of a stable, trivalent organic free radical: triphenylmethyl.

In so doing, he challenged the then prevailing belief that carbon could have only four chemical bonds.

In his first paper on the compound Gomberg wrote, "The experimental evidence. . . forces me to the conclusion that we have to deal here with a free radical, triphenylmethyl, (G6H5)3C. On this assumption alone do the results described above become intelligible and receive an adequate explanation".

At the time of his retirement in 1936 he had published 35 experimental papers entitled "On triphenylmethyl" which represented the research which he and his students carried out on the subject. Actually, this figure is low since numerous other papers dealt with ancillary phases of free radical chemistry.

Later in 1954, Gershman proposed “free radical theory of oxygen toxicity”, according to which, the toxicity of oxygen is due to its ability to form free radicals . In the same year, the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies by Commoner confirmed the presence of free radicals in biological materials.

Moses Gomberg was born in Elizabetgrad, Russia, on February 8, 1866, and died in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on February 12, 1947—four days after his eighty-first birthday.

Gomberg’s discovery made a major contribution to theoretical organic chemistry and fostered a field of research that continues to grow and expand.

Moses Gomberg studied analytical chemistry at the University of Michigan and synthetic chemistry in Germany, then the world’s main center of chemical research.
Discovery of free radical by Moses Gomberg

Discovery of radium and polonium

In 1891 Maria Sklodowska (1867-1934) moved to Paris from her native Poland to undertake scientific studies. In 1895 she married Pierre Curie (1859-1906), a physicist renowned for his work on magnetism and his theory on symmetry in physical phenomena.

Marie started work in Pierre’s laboratory in Rue Lhomond, Paris, using pitchblende uranium ore from the Joachimstal mine in Poland, at that time ruled by Austria. She tried to identify which substances and minerals besides pitchblende could also emit ionizing radiation.

Marie Curie developed an apparatus, the electroscope, for measuring radioactivity more accurately, as the photographic plate method was too crude.

Pierre Curie joined her in her research. To their surprise, the radioactivity of some of the ores were three to four times greater than could be accounted for on the basis of just their uranium and thorium content.

Marie treated the ore and, following Fresenius chemistry methodology, she separated several salt fractions and measured the radioactivity in each fraction. The Curies decided they had found a new element since, although the sample was far from pure, it was far more radioactive than either U or Th. They called it polonium (after Poland, Marie’s native country).

The symbol Po is written for the first time in the laboratory note book on 13 July 1893 by the hand of Pierre Curie. The article published in the Comptesrendus de l’ Académie des Sciences announces the discovery of a new element, more radioactive than uranium, but not seen as yet.

In the physical and chemical separation procedure applied to treat the uranium ore, they observed also high radiation emission in another chemical fraction containing barium. They hypothesized that eventually other substance with a chemical behavior close to barium could be present. Unlike uranium and polonium, radium does not occur freely in nature, the Curies and their assistant Andre were able to extract about 1 milligram of radium from nearly 10 tons of pitchblende in 1902.

The Curies wrote: “There is a strong reason to believe that the substance obtained contains a new element. We propose to name it as Radium. This new radioactive substance obtained probably still contains a large amount of barium mixed therein, but radium radioactivity seems enormous”. The Curies and their assistant Andre were able to extract about 1 milligram of radium from nearly 10 tons of pitchblende, according to the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Pure radium was isolated in 1902 by electrolysis by Marie Curie and Andre Debierne, a French chemist, according to New World Encyclopedia.
Discovery of radium and polonium

History discovery of glycerin

Glycerin is a trihydroxy sugar alcohol. It is the simplest trihydric alcohol and considered a derivative of propane.

Glycerine is capable of being reacted as an alcohol yet stable under most conditions. With such an uncommon blend of properties, glycerine finds application among a broad diversity of end uses.

It's been known since 2800 BCE, when it was isolated by heating fat mixed with ashes to produce soap.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a German chemist, first discovered and isolated glycerin in 1778, while working on the saponification of olive oil with lead oxide.

Scheele called glycerine the "sweet principle of fat." Scheele later established that other metals and glycerides produce the same chemical reaction which yields glycerine and soap and, in 1783, he published a description of his method of preparation in Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sweden. Scheele's method was used to produce glycerine commercially for some years.

In 1811, French chemist M. E. Chevrel called glycerin a liquid, defining the chemical formulas of fatty acids and the formulas of glycerin in vegetable oil and animal fat. The name glycerine came after the Greek word, glykys, meaning sweet."

In 1823 Chevreul obtained the first patent for a new way to produce fatty acids from fats treated with an alkali, which included the recovery of glycerine released during the process.

In 1836, Théophile-Jules Pelouze, a French scientist proposed C3H8O3 as the empirical formula of glycerol and in 1886, the structural formula of C3H5(OH)3 was accepted, based on the work of two scientists named Berthelot and Lucea in 1883.

Pasteur, in 1857, showed alcoholic fermentation of sugars produced glycerin and succinic acid. Glycerin is an intermediate in cellular carbohydrate and lipid metabolism found naturally in all living organisms.
History discovery of glycerin

Discovery of quasars

The term quasar derives from how these objects were originally discovered in the earliest radio surveys of the sky in the 1950s. Because of their almost starlike appearance, they were dubbed “quasi-stellar radio sources,” which by 1964 had been shortened to “quasar.”

The discovery of quasars was a gradual process that took several years, from 1960 to 1963 and was eventually resolved through the discovery of their redshifts.

Away from the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy, most radio sources were identified with otherwise normal-looking galaxies. Probably the first person to note the enhanced activity in the nucleus of a galaxy was Edward Fath (1908) who reported on the nuclear emission line spectrum of NGC 1068.

Quasars are incredibly bright sources of radiation that lie at the centers of distant massive galaxies. 3C 273 is one of the strongest extragalactic sources in the sky. It was first catalogued in 1959, and the 13th magnitude optical counterpart was observed at least as early as 1887.

It was named 3C 273 because it was the 273rd entry in the third Cambridge catalog of radio sources.

Since 1960, much fainter optical counterparts were being routinely identified, using accurate radio interferometer positions which were measured primarily at the Caltech Owens Valley Radio Observatory.

In early February 1963, Maarten Schmidt at Caltech recognized that the spectrum of the 13th magnitude apparently stellar object identified with the radio source 3C 273 could be most easily interpreted by a redshift of 0.16. He used the Hale optical telescope at California's Mount Palomar observatory to puzzle it all out.

3C 273 eluded identification until the series of lunar occultation observations led by Cyril Hazard.

An accurate position had been obtained in August, 1962 by Hazard, Mackey, and Shimmins (1963), who used the 210-foot antenna at the Parkes station in Australia to observe a lunar occultation of 3C 273.

Subsequent work by Schmidt and others led to increasingly-large measured redshifts and the recognition of the broad class of active galactic nuclei (AGN) of which quasars occupy the high luminosity end.
Discovery of quasars

Elmer McCollum: An American biochemist known for discovery of Vitamin A, B and D

Elmer Verner McCollum (March 3, 1879 – November 15, 1967) was born and raised in Kansas and attended the University of Kansas. His studies were initially directed toward medicine, but he eventually decided that chemistry better captured his interests, and he completed his work for a Masters degree in chemistry at Kansas. He was accepted into the Ph.D. program at the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale.

Contrary to the dogma that all fats had similar nutritional value, in 1913, Elmer McCollum and his associate Marguerite Davis at Wisconsin showed butter and egg yolk were not equivalent to lard and olive oil in supporting the growth and survival of rats. The growth-supporting ‘accessory factor’ became known as ‘fat-soluble A’ in 1918 and then ‘vitamin A’ in 1920.

“Fat-soluble A” was first believed to be a single vitamin capable of curing xerophthalmia and rickets. Cod-liver oil was first used as a therapeutic agent in the 1770s. McCollum showed that cod-liver oil aerated at the temperature of boiling water for 12 to 20 hr retained its antirachitic activity in rats, but was ineffective against xerophthalmia. In addition, these properties were unequally distributed in certain foods. Apparently, two separate factors were involved. The factor effective against rickets later was named vitamin D.

The discovery of vitamin A by McCollum and Davis in 1913 ushered in the era of accessory food substances culminating in the achievement of that goal. It included the discovery of vitamin D and its production in skin caused by ultraviolet light. This was followed by a description of its actions at the physiological level that resulted in a healthy skeleton and beyond.

In 1915 McCollum and Davis had found that when water oralcohol extractions of wheat germ or rice polishing were added, polished rice was greatly improved in nutritional quality. These experiments constituted the basis for their discovery that the anti-beriberi factor, necessary to relieve polyneuritis in pigeons, was necessary for rats and that there were apparently only two unidentified nutrients necessary for such animals.

They proposed the term fat-soluble A and water-soluble B, respectively, to designate the two unidentified nutrients. The isolation of B1was achieved in 1926 by Dutch scientists in Java using small “rice birds” fed on washed white rice supplemented with cod liver oil for their assays.

Elmer McCollum: An American biochemist known for discovery of Vitamin A, B and D

Elementary particle: Higgs Boson

Since the beginning of the 20th century, when Rutherford developed his first atom model, the theory of fundamental particles and their interactions has been a hot topic in physics.

One important breakthrough was the development of the unified electromagnetic and weak interaction. Among other ideas, this was based on the concept of broken symmetries and a mechanism for the provision of mass to the otherwise massless vector bosons of the weak interaction, the so-called Higgs mechanism.

The Higgs boson was postulated in 1964, and phenomenological studies of its possible production and decays started in the early 1970s.

The search for the Higgs boson has become the holy grail of all particle accelerators. In the simplest version of the electroweak theory, the Higgs boson serves both to give the W and Z bosons their masses and to give the fermions mass. It is thus a vital part of the theory.

The day July 4, 2012 has been a landmark day in the history of science due to the observation of a new resonance which is most likely to be the elusive Higgs boson announced by CERN. This particle is confirmed on 14th March, 2013, in the ‘Moriond’ conference, held in Italy.

The discovery of the Higgs boson not only represented a scientific breakthrough, it also marked the fulfilment of a fifty-year-old prediction of its discovery. Peter Higgs, from whom the particle’s name is derived, predicted the existence of such a particle using mathematical calculations. He believed that without the existence of such a particle, understanding how the material world is put together would be an impossible feat, as there would be no way to explain why objects have mass.

In October 2013, Peter Higgs and Francois Englert were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their contributions to the standard model of elementary particle physics and the prediction of the boson named after Higgs.
Elementary particle: Higgs Boson

History of Maillard reaction

Louis Camille Maillard was a chemist and physician, who was born in Pont-à Mousson, France, in 1878, and died in Paris in 1936. He began his studies in Nancy, where he obtained the degrees of M. Sc. in 1897 and Dr. Med. in 1903. In 1914 he moved to Pari s and the young doctor worked as head of a biological group in the Chemical Laboratory, University of Paris.

The Maillard reaction, named after L. C. Maillard, is also known as nonenzymatic browning. It is an extremely complex process and is the reaction between reducing sugars and proteins by the impact of heat.

The history of Maillard reactions begins in 1866, when Hugo Schiff (1834-1915) published that aldehydes (including sugars) react with amines (including amino acids) to form dark compounds. He proposed the formation of secondary imines (today called Schiff's bases) from aldehydes and aromatic amines. The reaction between carbonyl compound and primary amine discovered by Hugo Schiff in 1864 gave basis for further research in various scientific fields and resulted in thousands of papers being submitted by scientists all over the world to a diverse spectrum of scientific magazines.

In 1871, R. Sachsse studied the reaction of lactose with aniline, before Emil Fischer investigated the reactions of sugars and amino compounds in 1884 and 1886. Fischer focused on the reactions of D-glucose, D-fructose or sucrose with phenylhydrazine. Maillard was interested in Emil Fischer’s synthesis of peptides, which he thought, correctly as it turned out, could be achieved under milder conditions by the use of glycerol.

In 1909, Maillard began his studies. They are summarized in his 1913 academic report, under the title "Genèse des matières protéiques et des matières humiques”. He wrote at least eight related papers, with findings including carbon dioxide release as amino acids broke down, and the formation of a brown pigment.

He observed the formation of yellow-brown pigments in the reaction among sugars and amino acids, polypeptides, or proteins; and among polysaccharides and polypeptides, or proteins, in a heated solution.

Maillard searched for milder conditions. Thus, he wished to condense amino acids by use of glycerol as a condensing agent. He thus obtained cycloglycylglycine and pentaglycylglycine. Then, he used sugars instead of glycerol to investigate the formation of polypeptides from amino acids.

It was found that the aldehyde group (of an aldose) had more intense effect on amino acids than did the hydroxyl groups. This led to the discovery of the browning reaction, which is now more commonly known as the Maillard reaction.

At first, combining amino acids and sugars was simply called browning, and scientists only started calling it the Maillard reaction around 1947. In 1953, the US Department of Agriculture’s John Hodge proposed detailed mechanisms, breaking the Maillard reaction into three steps: the early Maillard reaction, the advanced Maillard reaction, and final Maillard reaction.
History of Maillard reaction