Discovery of Higgs Boson

Higgs’ Boson is a hypothetical scalar particle on Glashow-Weinberg-Salam theory of electromagnetic and weak interactions.

The Higgs boson is named for English physicist Peter Higgs. He is one of six physicists who, in 1964, developed the theory that suggested the existence of such a particle. Other physicists include Francois Englert, Robert Brout, Gerald Guralnik, Richard Hagen and Tom Kibble. All of them are credited with the theory of the Higgs mechanism.

The three papers written on this discovery by the six physicists were recognized as a milestone papers during Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration.

These six physicists were awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particles Physics for this work.

All Higgs field have characteristics field particles called Higgs bosons. The term ‘Higgs boson’ is typically reserved for the electro-weak Higgs, the particle of the Higgs field first used in 1967-68 by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam to account for electro-weak symmetry-breaking.

The search for the Higgs boson is of the highest priority for experimental particle physics.

Something that looks very much like the electro-weak Higgs boson was discovered at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider on 4 July 2012.
Discovery of Higgs Boson

Discovery of W and Z boson

First experimental evidence flavoring a unified description of the weak and electromagnetic interactions had been obtained in 1973 with discovery of neutral current interactions of neutrinos at CERN.

Result from neutrino experiments could be used to predict their mass to be around 80-90 GeV and the search for these bosons was given the higher priority.

In 1976, the Italian physicist Carlo Rubbia presented a paper with the idea of converting an existing accelerator at that time into a storage ring for protons and antiprotons, with the hoped it would have sufficient energy to detect the W and Z bosons.

The Dutch physicist later Simon Van der Meer invented a method that made Rubbia’s idea possible. The W and Z boson was particles were found and both were awarded Nobel Prize for physics in 1984.

In January 1983, scientist at the CERN Super Proton Synchrotron collider discovered the W boson.

A few months later a new paper published which provided the first evidence for the neutral intermediate Z boson.

With the discovery of the heavy gauge bosons W and Z in 1983, the theory of electroweak interactions was firmly established.

The discoveries of neutral currents and of the W and Z bosons marked a watershed in the fortune of CERN.

Decades after the discovery that the photon had no mass, its massive siblings the gauge bosons of the weak force – were observed in the laboratory.
Discovery of W and Z boson

History of CERN

History of CERN
The initiative of setting up research organization for studying the nucleus of the atom was made by the French physicist and Nobel Prize winner, Louis de Broglie, in 1949. In 1952, the European governments provisionally established “Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire” (CERN) to be located at a site near Geneva. Its convention was ratified in 1954, and CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) and its first accelerator, a 600 MeV proton Synchrocyclotron, began operation in 1957. One of the first experiment achievements was the long awaited observation of the decay of a pion into an electron and a neutrino.

In 1960s, CERN was leading in neutrino physics benefiting greatly from fast ejection of protons from the synchrotron. The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron commissioned in 1959 acted as the central hub and it provided an unparalleled variety of particle beams and research possibilities. CERN commissioned the Isotope Separator On-Line (ISOLDE) in 1967 for the study of very short lived nuclei. It began construction of the Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR) to develop the world’s first proton collider, which was commissioned in 1971. The most significant work started back in 1968 with the invention of multiwire proportional chambers and drift chambers that revolutionized the electronic particle detectors. Georges Charpak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1992 for this work.

CERN began to gather its momentum with the construction of a seven kilometer Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) in the early 1970s, initially planned for energy 300 GeV. The interconnected, large facilities gave an edge to the particle physics experiments, the construction of the SPS expanded the activities of CERN in the French side, thus residing now at the border of the two countries.

In 1984, Carlo Rubbia and Simon van de Meer received the Noble Prize for Physics for their work, which culminated in the discovery of the W-boson and Z boson at CERN in 1983 – the long sought carriers of the weak nuclear force – confirmed the “electroweak” theory unifying weak and electromagnetic forces.

In 1981, the construction of the 27 kilometers long Large Electron Positron collider (LEP) ring started. It was the largest scientific instrument constructed at the time, for initial operating energy of 50 GeV per beam.
History of CERN

Brief History of World Wide Web

Brief History of World Wide Web
World Wide Web was created by English scientist working with CERN or European Organization for Nuclear Research. Tim Berners-Lee the oxford graduates created it in 1989 and released in 1992.

The first Web server was made public on the internet before Christmas, although no one had the means to make much use of it.

Before that in 1980, Tim Berners-Lee wrote a note book program, “Enquire Within Upon Everything”, which allows links to be made between arbitrary nodes. Each note had a title, a type and a list of bidirectional type links.

On April 30, 1993 CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free for anyone without any fees. The arrival of the World Wide Web was to the Internet like the arrival of the internal combustion engine to the country lane, Internet transport would never be the same again.

The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider of MIT in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept.

One of the main features of the WWW documents is their hypertext structure. The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in his book "Literary Machines," where he defined it as "non-sequential writing," and only later it became considered a medium limited to computers. In 1960 Ted Nelson developed the modern version of hypertext. Learning from Ted Nelson's ideas, Tim Berners-Lee of CERN conceived the idea of the World-Wide Web in 1989.

By year end 1992, there were over 50 web servers, located mostly at universities and research centers. In mid 1999 the number of servers had grown to nearly 800,000 and by 2001 there were over 20 million.

It was 1990 when Tim Berners-Lee, using a NeXT computer, wrote the first web browser-editor, later called “Nexus”. Three years later, another pioneer of the internet, Marc Andreesen, as an undergraduate at the University of Illinois, develop the graphic interface browser named “Mosaic”. This software was the forerunner to the popular Netscape browser called “Navigator.”

By the end of 1993 various browsers could access about 600 websites. There were close to 10,000 sites by 1995; 100,000 by 1996; and about 650,000 in 1997.

The internet has forced companies to adjust. The web has added yet another leg to the marketing stool making the business environment more competitive. And everyday access is becoming faster and easier.
Brief History of World Wide Web